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UNITED STATES

SECURITIES AND EXCHANGE COMMISSION

Washington, D.C. 20549

FORM 10-K

(Mark One)

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☒ | ANNUAL REPORT PURSUANT TO SECTION 13 OR 15(d) OF THE SECURITIES EXCHANGE ACT OF 1934

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For the Fiscal Year Ended December 31, 2025

OR

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☐ | TRANSITION REPORT PURSUANT TO SECTION 13 OR 15(d) OF THE SECURITIES EXCHANGE ACT OF 1934

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For the Transition Period from to

Commission File Number: 001-38501

SCHOLAR ROCK HOLDING CORP ORATION

(Exact name of Registrant as specified in its charter)

​ | ​ | ​
Delaware | ​ | 82-3750435
(State or Other Jurisdiction of | ​ | (I.R.S. Employer
Incorporation or Organization) | ​ | Identification Number)

301 Binney Street, 3rd Floor

Cambridge, MA 02142

(857) 259-3860

(Address, Including Zip Code, and Telephone Number, Including Area Code, of Registrant’s Principal Executive Offices)

Securities registered pursuant to Section 12(b) of the Act:

​ | ​ | ​
Title of each class | Trading symbol(s) | Name of each exchange on which registered
Common Stock, par value $0.001 per share | SRRK | The Nasdaq Global Select Market

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Securities registered pursuant to Section 12(g) of the Act: None

Indicate by check mark if the registrant is a well-known seasoned issuer, as defined in Rule 405 of the Securities Act. Yes ☒ No ☐

Indicate by check mark if the registrant is not required to file reports pursuant to Section 13 or 15(d) of the Act. Yes ☐ No ☒

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant (1) has filed all reports required to be filed by Section 13 or 15(d) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 during the preceding 12 months (or for such shorter period that the registrant was required to file such reports), and (2) has been subject to such filing requirements for the past 90 days. Yes ☒ No ☐

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant has submitted electronically every Interactive Data File required to be submitted pursuant to Rule 405 of Regulation S-T (§ 232.405 of this chapter) during the preceding 12 months (or for such shorter period that the registrant was required to submit such files). Yes ☒ No ☐

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant is a large accelerated filer, an accelerated filer, a non-accelerated filer, a smaller reporting company or an emerging growth company. See the definitions of “large accelerated filer,” “accelerated filer,” “smaller reporting company,” and “emerging growth company” in Rule 12b-2 of the Exchange Act.

​ | ​ | ​ | ​
Large Accelerated Filer | ☐ | Accelerated Filer | ☐
Non-accelerated Filer | ☒ | Smaller Reporting Company | ☒
​ | ​ | Emerging growth company | ☐

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If an emerging growth company, indicate by check mark if the registrant has elected not to use the extended transition period for complying with any new or revised financial accounting standards provided pursuant to Section 13(a) of the Exchange Act ☐

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant has filed a report on and attestation to its management’s assessment of the effectiveness of its internal control over financial reporting under Section 404(b) of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act (15 U.S.C. 7262(b)) by the registered public accounting firm that prepared or issued its audit report. ☐

If securities are registered pursuant to Section 12(b) of the Act, indicate by check mark whether the financial statements of the registrant included in the filing reflect the correction of an error to previously issued financial statements. ☐

Indicate by check mark whether any of those error corrections are restatements that required a recovery analysis of incentive-based compensation received by any of the registrant’s executive officers during the relevant recovery period pursuant to §240.10D-1(b). ☐

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant is a shell company (as defined in Rule 12b-2 of the Exchange Act.) Yes ☐ No ☒

As of June 30, 2025, the last day of the registrant’s most recently completed second fiscal quarter, the aggregate market value of the Common Stock held by non-affiliates of the registrant was approximately $2.6 billion based on the closing price of the registrant’s common stock on June 30, 2025. The calculation excludes shares of the registrant’s common stock held by current executive officers, directors and stockholders that the registrant has concluded are affiliates of the registrant. This determination of affiliate status is not a determination for other purposes.

As of February 26, 2026, there were 114,883,096 shares of common stock outstanding.

DOCUMENTS INCORPORATED BY REFERENCE

Portions of the registrant’s definitive proxy statement for its 2025 Annual Meeting of Stockholders, which the registrant intends to file pursuant to Regulation 14A with the Securities and Exchange Commission not later than 120 days after the registrant’s fiscal year ended December 31, 2025, are incorporated by reference into Part III of this Annual Report on Form 10-K.

EXPLANATORY NOTE

The registrant was previously a smaller reporting company under applicable Securities and Exchange Commission rules and regulations. As of the December 31, 2025 determination date, the registrant’s public float exceeded $700 million and thus no longer qualified as a smaller reporting company. However, the registrant remains eligible to use smaller reporting company scaled disclosure requirements pursuant to the transition provisions in Item 10(f)(2)(i)(C) of Regulation S-K and paragraph (3)(i)(C) of the smaller reporting company definition in Rule 12b-2. In accordance with applicable rules, the registrant is permitted to use the scaled disclosure requirements applicable to smaller reporting companies in this Annual Report on Form 10-K and has elected to do so.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

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SPECIAL NOTE REGARDING FORWARD-LOOKING STATEMENTS | 3
​ | ​ | ​
PART I | 5
Item 1. | Business | 5
Item 1A. | Risk Factors | 57
Item 1B. | Unresolved Staff Comments | 107
Item 1C. | Cybersecurity | 108
Item 2. | Properties | 108
Item 3. | Legal Proceedings | 109
Item 4. | Mine Safety Disclosures | 109
​ | ​ | ​
PART II | 110
Item 5. | Market for Registrant’s Common Equity, Related Stockholder Matters and Issuers Purchases of Equity Securities | 110
Item 6. | Reserved | 110
Item 7. | Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations | 111
Item 7A. | Quantitative and Qualitative Disclosures about Market Risk | 121
Item 8. | Financial Statements and Supplementary Data | 121
Item 9. | Changes in and Disagreements with Accountants on Accounting and Financial Disclosure | 121
Item 9A. | Controls and Procedures | 121
Item 9B. | Other Information | 123
Item 9C. | Foreign Jurisdictions that Prevent Inspections | 124
​ | ​ | ​
PART III | 124
Item 10. | Directors, Executive Officers and Corporate Governance | 124
Item 11. | Executive Compensation | 124
Item 12. | Security Ownership of Certain Beneficial Owners and Management and Related Stockholder Matters | 125
Item 13. | Certain Relationships and Related Transactions, and Director Independence | 125
Item 14. | Principal Accountant Fees and Services | 125
​ | ​ | ​
PART IV | 126
Item 15. | Exhibits and Financial Statement Schedules | 126
Item 16. | Form 10-K Summary | 130

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SPECIAL NOTE REGARDING FORWARD-LOOKING STATEMENTS

This Annual Report on Form 10-K (“Annual Report”), including the documents incorporated by reference, contains forward-looking statements within the meaning of the federal securities laws, Section 27A of the Securities Act of 1933, as amended, and Section 21E of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, as amended (the “Exchange Act”). We intend these forward-looking statements to be covered by the safe harbor provisions for forward-looking statements contained in the Private Securities Litigation Reform Act of 1995 and are including this statement for purposes of complying with those safe harbor provisions. All statements other than statements of historical facts contained in this Annual Report are forward-looking statements. In some cases, you can identify forward-looking statements by terminology such as “may”, “will”, “should”, “expects”, “intends”, “plans”, “anticipates”, “believes”, “estimates”, “predicts”, “potential”, “continue” or the negative of these terms or other comparable terminology. Some of the risks and uncertainties that may cause our actual results, performance or achievements to differ materially from those expressed or implied by forward-looking statements include, among others, the following:

| ● | the timing, scope, or likelihood of our ability to obtain and maintain regulatory approval from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (“FDA”), the European Commission (“EC”) and other regulatory authorities for apitegromab, and any related restrictions, limitations or warnings in the label of any approval for apitegromab;

| ● | our ability to obtain regulatory approval for apitegromab is dependent on the timely and satisfactory response to the Complete Response Letter (“CRL”) received from the FDA in September 2025 and resolution of the cGMP deficiencies identified in the CRL by our third-party fill-finish facility;

| ● | our plans to address the CRL;

| ● | our ability to successfully build a commercial infrastructure to launch and market apitegromab, or otherwise provide access to apitegromab, if and when it is approved or receives pricing or reimbursement approval;

| ● | our ability, through third party manufacturers, to successfully manufacture commercial supply of apitegromab;

| ● | the rate and degree of market acceptance of apitegromab, if approved;

| ● | the size and growth potential of the markets for apitegromab, and our ability to serve those markets, either alone or in combination with others;

| ● | the clinical utility of apitegromab and its potential advantages over other therapeutic options;

| ● | the potential benefit of orphan drug exclusivity, Orphan Drug designation, Fast Track designation and Rare Pediatric Disease designation for apitegromab;

| ● | our success in identifying and executing development programs for additional indications for apitegromab;

| ● | the success, cost and timing of clinical trials, including the progress, completion, timing of results, and actual results of our clinical trials;

| ● | our ability, through third party manufacturers, to successfully manufacture our product candidates for clinical trials;

| ● | the fact that top-line or interim data from our clinical studies may not be predictive of the final or more detailed results of such study or the results of other ongoing or future studies;

| ● | our success in identifying and executing a development program for our preclinical product candidates, including SRK-373, SRK-256 and identifying additional product candidates from our preclinical programs and research pipeline;

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| ● | our ability to retain our executives and highly skilled technical and managerial personnel, which could be affected due to any transition in management, or if we fail to recruit additional highly skilled personnel;

| ● | our expectations regarding our ability to obtain and maintain intellectual property protection for our product candidates and the duration of such protection and our ability to operate our business without infringing on the intellectual property rights of others;

| ● | our ability to obtain, generally or on terms acceptable to us, funding for our operations, including funding necessary to commercialize, if approved, apitegromab and complete further development of our current and future product candidates;

| ● | our ability to establish or maintain collaborations or strategic relationships;

| ● | our expectations relating to the potential of our proprietary platform technology;

| ● | the impact of new laws and regulations or amendments to existing laws and regulations in the United States and foreign countries;

| ● | risks associated with the impact of global economic and political developments on our business, including rising inflation and capital market disruptions, tariff policies, economic sanctions and economic slowdowns or recessions or public health pandemics;

| ● | developments and projections relating to our competitors and our industry;

| ● | our estimates and expectations regarding cash, cash reserves, and expense levels, future revenues, capital requirements and needs for additional financing, including our expected use of proceeds from our public offerings, and liquidity sources;

| ● | our expectations regarding the period during which we qualify as a “smaller reporting company” as defined by Rule 12b-2 of the Exchange Act; and

| ● | other risks and uncertainties, including those listed under the caption Part II, Item 1A “Risk Factors”.

The risks set forth above are not exhaustive. Other sections of this report may include additional factors that could adversely affect our business and financial performance. Moreover, we operate in a very competitive and rapidly changing environment. New risk factors emerge from time to time and it is not possible for management to predict all risk factors, nor can we assess the impact of all risk factors on our business or the extent to which any factor, or combination of factors, may cause actual results to differ materially from those contained in any forward-looking statements. Given these risks and uncertainties, investors should not place undue reliance on forward-looking statements as a prediction of actual results. Investors should also refer to our most recent Annual Report and our Quarterly Reports on Form 10-Q for future periods and Current Reports on Form 8-K as we file them with the United States Securities and Exchange Commission (the “SEC”), and to other materials we may furnish to the public from time to time through Current Reports on Form 8-K or otherwise, for a discussion of risks and uncertainties that may cause actual results, performance or achievements to differ materially from those expressed or implied by forward-looking statements. We expressly disclaim any responsibility to update any forward-looking statements to reflect changes in underlying assumptions or factors, new information, future events, or otherwise, and you should not rely upon these forward-looking statements after the date of this report.

We may from time to time provide estimates, projections and other information concerning our industry, the general business environment, and the markets for certain diseases, including estimates regarding the potential size of those markets and the estimated incidence and prevalence of certain medical conditions. Information that is based on estimates, forecasts, projections, market research or similar methodologies is inherently subject to uncertainties, and actual events, circumstances or numbers, including actual disease prevalence rates and market size, may differ materially from the information reflected in this Annual Report. Unless otherwise expressly stated, we obtained this industry data, business information, market data, prevalence information and other data from reports, research surveys, studies and

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similar data prepared by market research firms and other third parties, industry, medical and general publications, government data, and similar sources, in some cases applying our own assumptions and analysis that may, in the future, prove not to have been accurate.

PART I

Item 1. Business

I. Overview

We are a global biopharmaceutical company dedicated to improving the lives of children and adults with spinal muscular atrophy (“SMA”) and additional rare, severe and debilitating neuromuscular diseases. As a leader in the biology of the transforming growth factor beta (“TGFβ”) superfamily, our novel understanding of the molecular mechanisms of growth factor activation enabled the development of a proprietary platform for the discovery and development of monoclonal antibodies that locally and selectively target the precursor, or latent, forms of growth factors. Based on our innovative, proprietary, and scalable technology platform, we are building a world-leading anti-myostatin pipeline. During 2025, we made significant progress in advancing our product candidates. We believe 2026 could be a transformational year for Scholar Rock as we anticipate the potential to become a commercial-stage biotech company.

Our lead pipeline product candidates include apitegromab, a subcutaneous formulation of apitegromab, and SRK-439.

Apitegromab is a novel, investigational, fully human monoclonal antibody that inhibits myostatin activation by selectively binding the pro- and latent forms of myostatin in skeletal muscle. Myostatin is a catabolic agent that functions as a negative regulator of muscle mass, therefore inhibition of myostatin results in increased muscle mass and strength. Apitegromab is in development for the treatment of people with SMA and for the treatment of people with facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy (“FSHD”).

Positive data from the successful Phase 3 SAPPHIRE study evaluating apitegromab in children and adults with SMA were reported in October 2024, and regulatory approvals are anticipated in the U.S. and Europe in 2026. Beyond SMA, a Phase 2 study evaluating apitegromab in patients with FSHD is expected to initiate in mid-2026. We see potential for apitegromab broadly in additional rare, severe, and debilitating neuromuscular diseases where muscle atrophy is a key component of disease pathogenesis, and we are actively exploring indications beyond SMA and FSHD.

In addition to the current intravenous (“IV”) formulation, we are developing a subcutaneous formulation of apitegromab. A Phase 1 study in healthy volunteers has been completed, demonstrating that subcutaneous (“SC”) apitegromab has favorable bioavailability and a comparable pharmacodynamic profile relative to IV administered apitegromab. Further development activities are ongoing, including planned FDA and EMA regulatory engagements.

Our clinical-stage pipeline also includes SRK-439, a novel, investigational, subcutaneously administered fully human anti-pro/latent myostatin antibody that has high inhibitory potency while maintaining selectivity towards myostatin. SRK-439 is being developed for the treatment of patients with rare, severe, and debilitating neuromuscular diseases. A Phase 1 study of SRK-439 in healthy volunteers is currently underway, with topline data anticipated in the second half of 2026.

Beyond our clinical-stage product candidates, our early-stage pipeline includes additional programs for the treatment of patients with rare, severe, and debilitating neuromuscular diseases.

As we focus our strategy on rare neuromuscular diseases, we are currently seeking partnerships for our additional programs. These programs include: SRK-181, a Phase 2-ready investigational inhibitor of latent TGFβ1 in development for the treatment of patients with solid tumors that are resistant to anti-PD-(L)1 antibody therapies; SRK-373, an investigational, highly selective inhibitor of the latent TGFβ1 isoform with selective activity in the fibrotic extracellular matrix, in preclinical development for the treatment of fibrotic diseases; and SRK-256, an investigational inhibitor of RGMc, or hemojuvelin, in preclinical development for the treatment of iron-restricted anemias. We are also seeking partners to further evaluate the potential for myostatin inhibition in combination with GLP-1 weight loss approaches

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following our positive Phase 2 EMBRAZE study, which demonstrated proof-of-concept in the ability of apitegromab to drive statistically significant preservation of lean mass during tirzepatide-induced weight loss.

During 2025, we made considerable progress advancing our pipeline and positioning Scholar Rock to become a global commercial-stage biotech company.

Key 2025 Highlights and Accomplishments:

| ● | Progressed U.S. and European regulatory activities for apitegromab for the treatment of children and adults with SMA. Scholar Rock submitted a BLA to the FDA in January 2025, received Priority Review designation in March 2025, and achieved acceptance of the EMA MAA in March 2025, representing significant regulatory milestones toward commercialization. The Company completed a constructive and collaborative in-person Type A meeting with the FDA in November 2025, following the receipt of a Complete Response Letter (CRL) from the FDA on September 22, 2025.

| ● | Transformed leadership team. Appointed eight-year Board Chairman, David Hallal, as Chief Executive Officer; Akshay Vaishnaw, M.D., Ph.D. as President of R&D; R. Keith Woods as Chief Operating Officer; Vikas Sinha as Chief Financial Officer; and Rebecca McLeod as Chief Brand Officer and U.S. General Manager, strengthening the Company’s leadership as it transitions toward a global commercial-stage organization.

| ● | Initiated U.S. and European build-out of commercial organization. Established a lean, experienced U.S. customer-facing team of approximately 50 professionals with deep expertise in neurology and rare disease. Commenced commercial build-out in Europe to support the planned European launch, starting with Germany.

| ● | Advanced industry-leading anti-myostatin pipeline. Progressed our strategic plan to build a robust pipeline of therapies for the treatment of people living with rare, severe, and debilitating neuromuscular diseases.

| o | Initiated dosing in the Phase 2 OPAL study evaluating apitegromab in infants and toddlers under 2 years of age with SMA

| o | Advanced preclinical development of apitegromab for FSHD and filed an Investigational New Drug (“IND”) application to support the initiation of a Phase 2 study

| o | Completed a Phase 1 study of subcutaneous apitegromab in healthy volunteers

| o | Initiated dosing in a Phase 1 study evaluating SRK-439 study in healthy volunteers

| o | Continued the ongoing ONYX open-label extension study evaluating the long-term safety and efficacy of apitegromab in patients with SMA who participated in the TOPAZ and SAPPHIRE clinical trials

| o | Completed the Phase 2 EMBRAZE study, demonstrating proof-of-concept in the ability of apitegromab to drive statistically significant preservation of lean mass during tirzepatide-induced weight loss

To achieve our mission to improve the lives of children and adults with SMA and additional rare, severe and debilitating neuromuscular diseases, we have assembled an experienced management team, board of directors, scientific founders, and technical leaders with extensive experience across drug discovery, development, and commercialization. Members of our team have held leadership roles across the biotechnology and pharmaceutical industry, including at Acceleron Pharma, Inc.; Alexion Pharmaceuticals; Alnylam Pharmaceuticals, Inc.; argenx US, Inc.; Celgene Corporation; Foundation Medicine, Inc.; and Novartis Pharmaceuticals. We were founded by internationally respected scientists, Drs. Timothy A. Springer and Leonard I. Zon of Harvard Medical School and Boston Children’s Hospital, whose foundational discoveries underpin our platform.

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II.Our Approach and Proprietary Platform

Scholar Rock’s innovative approach is rooted in our novel understanding of the molecular mechanisms of growth factor activation and signaling, and in our ability to discover and develop monoclonal antibodies that can inhibit the activation of a growth factor with an unprecedented degree of selectivity. Our proprietary platform is designed to generate highly selective antibodies that target a growth factor’s latent form, prior to its activation within the disease microenvironment, or tissue where it is localized.

Our approach of targeting the latent, precursor forms of growth factors is based on the breakthrough discovery by the laboratory of our cofounder, Timothy A. Springer, Ph.D. of Harvard Medical School and Boston Children’s Hospital.

Unlike many other proteins that are produced and secreted by cells in a mature, or active form, many growth factors are expressed by cells in a latent form. For example, TGFβ1 is produced by cells as a single protein that is enzymatically processed into two distinct and physically separated domains, the mature growth factor and the remaining portion of the original protein, referred to as the prodomain, which remain associated as part of a complex. This secreted complex is latent, or inactive, and must first be activated to carry out its normal function in a localized tissue or disease microenvironment. In a seminal peer-reviewed publication in 2011, Dr. Springer elucidated a new understanding of the mechanism of activation of the latent growth factor complex among members of the TGFβ superfamily by solving a high-resolution x-ray crystal structure of this latent form of TGFβ1 (as illustrated in the graphic below).

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Structural representation of the latent form of TGFβ1 wherein the prodomain wraps around the growth factor domain

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This research explained, at a molecular level, why the secreted form of TGFβ1 is inactive: the prodomain, though physically separated from the mature growth factor domain, forms a “cage” around the active form of TGFβ1, preventing receptor signaling until activation occurs. Only when the cage is “unlocked” by a precursor activation event can the growth factor be released and mediate its effects in the local microenvironment. Dr. Springer further hypothesized that this phenomenon likely holds true for most members of the TGFβ superfamily, though the exact nature of the activation event, such as integrin binding or enzymatic cleavage, may differ among members of the superfamily.

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Carrying this research forward, we confirmed the applicability of this approach in other members of the TGFβ superfamily, including myostatin. Similar to TGFβ, myostatin is initially expressed in an inactive precursor form known as promyostatin (as illustrated in the graphic below). Release of the active growth factor is regulated by two discrete protease cleavage events: promyostatin is converted to an inactive latent complex, then latent myostatin is cleaved to release active myostatin.

Importantly, while myostatin, as well as many other growth factors, are structurally similar, their cages are structurally diverse, and this provides the basis for our approach to improved selectivity.

We believe that there are several important advantages to our approach of targeting the latent forms of growth factors over conventional therapeutic approaches, which inhibit mature growth factors or their receptors systemically throughout the body:

| ● | Targeting the latent precursor enables intervention at the site of action within the diseased tissue microenvironment. Given that many growth factors act primarily within the microenvironment where they are activated, as opposed to exerting their effects systemically, we believe that prevention of activation is a preferred mode of action for achieving improved outcomes. In contrast, traditional approaches to targeting growth factor signaling are focused on inhibiting the growth factor after it has been activated and released systemically; and

| ● | Targeting the latent precursor allows heightened selectivity among structurally related growth factors, potentially limiting off-target effects. For example, two members of the TGFβ superfamily, myostatin and GDF11, are 90% identical in their growth factor domains. Therefore, many of the traditional inhibitors that target myostatin also inadvertently inhibit GDF11. Similarly, most of the known inhibitors of TGFβ are pan inhibitors, meaning that they do not distinguish among the three isoforms of TGFβ, namely, TGFβ1, TGFβ 2 and TGFβ3. Despite the sequence similarities of the active forms of these growth factors, their cages are structurally diverse. We have been able to harness this diversity to generate antibodies that specifically bind the inactive growth factor precursors and inhibit activation of a particular growth factor of interest, but not others that are closely related.

By selectively targeting precursor forms in the disease microenvironment, we believe we can interfere with the disease processes while minimizing the effects on the normal physiological processes potentially conferring a safety advantage.

We integrate these insights with sophisticated capabilities for protein expression, monoclonal antibody discovery and assay development to discover, design, optimize, and evaluate the characteristics of our monoclonal antibodies. Our proprietary platform is covered by a robust IP portfolio projected to expire well into the 2030s, excluding any patent term adjustments or extensions.

Using our innovative approach and proprietary platform, we are creating a pipeline of novel product candidates that selectively modulate growth factor activation implicated in rare, severe, and devastating neuromuscular diseases.

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III.Our Strategy

Our mission is to discover, develop, and deliver novel, life-transforming therapies to people suffering from rare, severe, and devastating neuromuscular diseases. To achieve our mission, our key long-term priorities include:

| ● | Maximize our opportunity to serve the rare neuromuscular disease community with our innovative anti-myostatin antibodies;

| ● | Advance global commercial readiness activities to serve patients across a 50+ country platform;

| ● | Deliver topline clinical data readouts in the near-, mid-, and long term;

| ● | Build a durable revenue base while maintaining disciplined cost control and allocating capital to the highest return opportunities; and

| ● | Attract, develop, and retain exceptional talent by fostering a high-performance culture.

In 2026, we are focused on three key pillars to drive our long-term success:

| ● | Commercialize apitegromab for children and adults living with SMA. We are developing our first product candidate, apitegromab, for the treatment of patients with SMA. By targeting the latent form of myostatin and specifically inhibiting its activation in muscle, we believe apitegromab holds considerable promise in improving motor function in patients with SMA. In October 2024, we reported positive data from the successful Phase 3 SAPPHIRE study, a pivotal, randomized, placebo-controlled trial designed to evaluate the efficacy and safety of apitegromab in children and adults being treated with an approved SMN-targeted therapy. See “Phase 3 SAPPHIRE Pivotal Trial” below. Apitegromab is the first and only myostatin inhibitor with a positive, statistically significant Phase 3 outcome. We plan to commercialize apitegromab following regulatory approval(s) in the U.S. and in Europe, beginning with Germany, followed by global expansion to countries in Asia Pacific and Latin America, among others. With an estimated 35,000 SMA patients globally having received an approved SMN-targeted treatment, and significant existing unmet need for a therapy that can address progressive muscle weakness, we believe apitegromab in SMA represents a large opportunity to serve patients globally.

| ● | Expand apitegromab’s impact to infants and toddlers with SMA and to additional rare, severe, and debilitating neuromuscular diseases. Our goal is to maximize the impact of apitegromab by bringing this potentially transformative therapy to the broad SMA community. To deliver on this goal, we are conducting the Phase 2 OPAL study, which is designed to evaluate apitegromab in infants and toddlers with SMA under two years of age who have received an approved SMN1-targeted gene therapy or who are receiving ongoing treatment with an SMN2-targeted therapy. We also plan to develop apitegromab for the treatment of additional rare, severe neuromuscular diseases, beginning with people suffering from facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy (FSHD). FSHD is a rare, progressive neuromuscular disease characterized by muscle atrophy and functional decline, affecting approximately 30,000 individuals across the U.S. and Europe. The IND application is cleared, and we plan to initiate a Phase 2 randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial, called FORGE, in mid-2026. Beyond FSHD, there is a broad landscape of potential indications that supports a significant opportunity for muscle-targeted therapies.

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| ● | Advance our leading anti-myostatin pipeline. Beyond intravenously administered apitegromab, we plan to maximize the impact of our platform to shape the future of treatment for patients living with rare neuromuscular diseases. This includes the development of a subcutaneous formulation of apitegromab, which is intended to provide optionality for patients as a small volume, self- or caregiver-administered anti-myostatin antibody suitable for an autoinjector. A Phase 1 study in healthy volunteers has been completed, and further development activities are ongoing, including planned FDA and EMA regulatory engagements. In addition, we are advancing SRK-439, a novel, investigational, subcutaneously administered myostatin inhibitor that binds to pro- and latent myostatin with high affinity and selectivity (i.e., no GDF11 or Activin A binding). SRK-439 has demonstrated the potential to potently inhibit myostatin and increase muscle mass in preclinical studies. A Phase 1 study in healthy volunteers is underway, and topline data are expected in the second half of 2026. We are also advancing

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|  | additional early-stage pipeline candidates to selectively modulate targets implicated in rare, severe, and devastating neuromuscular diseases.

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IV.Our Pipeline

We are building an innovative, industry-leading pipeline of novel product candidates that selectively inhibit myostatin for the treatment of patients with a broad range of rare, severe, and devastating neuromuscular diseases. We have worldwide rights to our proprietary platform and to all of our product candidates.

The following graphic summarizes our neuromuscular pipeline programs:

V.Our Product Candidates

Latent Myostatin Programs

We have utilized our innovative, proprietary platform to generate two novel antibodies targeting the latent form of myostatin: apitegromab and SRK-439. Both antibodies are highly selective inhibitors that prevent the activation of myostatin in skeletal muscle, where myostatin resides and signals upon activation. While mature myostatin is 90% identical in the growth factor domain to its most closely related TGFβ superfamily member, GDF11, the prodomain that cages mature myostatin and keeps it in its latent precursor form is only 52% identical to the GDF11 prodomain, which underpins the selectivity of our approach.

Role of Myostatin

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Myostatin, also known as growth differentiation factor 8 (“GDF8”), is a member of the TGFβ superfamily and is produced by skeletal muscle cells. As with other tissues and organs in the human body, healthy muscle homeostasis is maintained by a proper balance of growth signals, or anabolic stimuli, and breakdown signals, or catabolic stimuli. In humans, the anabolic stimuli that drive muscle growth are proteins, such as the human growth hormone and the insulin like growth factor 1. In contrast, myostatin is a catabolic agent that functions as a negative regulator of muscle mass. Animals lacking functional myostatin genes, or its receptor, have larger muscles and increased strength compared to normal animals. Such animals are otherwise healthy and live a normal lifespan.

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Traditional Approaches and Challenges

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Because of its established role in regulating muscle mass, myostatin has been a popular target for a variety of drug development programs. There have been two general approaches to trying to inhibit the signaling of myostatin in humans. The first is to develop an antibody, or an antibody-like molecule, that binds to mature myostatin in circulation and prevents its ability to signal through its receptor, the ActRIIb receptor. The second is to develop an antibody to the ActRIIb receptor itself, or a soluble decoy of the ActRIIb receptor, with a goal of preventing myostatin signaling through its receptor. Both of these approaches, however, have significant limitations.

As a member of the TGFβ superfamily, mature myostatin shares considerable structural similarity with other family members. For example, the active form of myostatin and its most closely related family member, GDF11, are 90% identical in the growth factor domains, making it extremely challenging to identify antibodies that are truly specific for myostatin and do not interfere with other targets. Moreover, attempts to interrupt myostatin signaling through its receptor are complicated by the fact that the ActRIIb receptor, in addition to being the receptor for myostatin, is also the receptor for a number of related family members, including GDF11, activins and other growth factors. Attempts to block the signaling of myostatin by targeting its receptor therefore inevitably interfere with the signaling of these other growth factors, many of which are involved in normal biological processes unrelated to muscle.

There are multiple examples of clinical trials demonstrating the risk of non-selective inhibition of myostatin. For example, in a Phase 2 clinical trial in Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy reported in 2017, a soluble decoy of the ActRIIb receptor resulted in bleeding side effects believed by the sponsor to be unrelated to inhibition of myostatin signaling, but instead related to the inhibition of signaling by certain other members of the TGFβ superfamily known to be important in the maintenance of vascular integrity. These side effects resulted in termination of the clinical program. Results from another clinical trial were reported showing that treatment of patients with an antibody to the ActRIIb receptor resulted in suppression of the levels of follicle stimulating hormone, an important reproductive hormone. In this clinical trial, the sponsor believed that these effects were likely related to inhibition of signaling through the ActRIIb receptor. More recently, two Phase 2 studies explored different approaches to targeting members of the TGFβ superfamily in obese or overweight patients. In the first study, an anti-ActRII monoclonal antibody was administered in combination with tirzepatide. Although the approach was able to preserve lean muscle loss during weight loss, the investigators noted high rates of muscle spasms, acne, and changes in triglyceride levels. In the second study, an anti-myostatin antibody and an anti-activin A antibody were administered in combination with GLP-1 receptor agonist in obese or overweight patients. Although this approach was also able to mitigate lean muscle loss, the discontinuation rate was substantially higher (28%) relative to semaglutide monotherapy (5%).

Apitegromab: Selective anti-latent myostatin inhibitor

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Apitegromab is an investigational fully human, intravenously administered monoclonal antibody designed to inhibit myostatin activation by selectively binding the pro- and latent forms of myostatin in the skeletal muscle. It is the first muscle-targeted treatment candidate to demonstrate clinical proof-of-concept for the treatment of SMA.

In preclinical studies, we have shown that apitegromab selectively avoids interaction with other closely related growth factors that play distinct physiological roles. We observed multi-fold increases in serum latent myostatin levels in mouse models of both early and late SMN restoration. Circulating latent myostatin is a key marker of target engagement, as effective antibody binding increases levels of the bound complex in serum. Moreover, apitegromab promoted increased strength (as measured by torque generation) in SMN-deficient mice. In a Phase 1 clinical trial designed to evaluate the safety, tolerability, and pharmacokinetic (“PK”) /pharmacodynamic (“PD”) profile of apitegromab in adult healthy volunteers, there were no dose-limiting toxicities, and we observed robust and sustained target engagement following administration of apitegromab.

We believe that apitegromab can have a significant impact for patients with neuromuscular diseases that bear certain features:

| 1) | muscle atrophy as a key component of disease pathogenesis;

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| 2) | intact or partially intact muscle innervations are present; and

| 3) | significant muscle structural abnormalities are absent.

SMA is a genetic disorder in which muscle atrophy and weakness can lead to deterioration in mobility, swallowing, and breathing, and can cause debilitating fatigue. SMA bears the above listed features, making apitegromab a promising therapeutic candidate. We believe that apitegromab has the potential to be the first muscle-targeted therapy that is aimed at improving motor function in patients with SMA who are receiving an SMN-targeted therapy. In addition, we are developing apitegromab for the treatment of patients with FSHD, a rare, devastating neuromuscular disease with significant unmet need and no approved therapies. We have also identified additional rare, severe, and debilitating neuromuscular diseases for which the selective inhibition of the activation of myostatin may offer potentially transformative therapeutic benefit.

About SMA

SMA is a rare, and often fatal, genetic disorder that typically manifests in young children. It is characterized by the loss of motor neurons, atrophy of the voluntary muscles of the limbs and trunk, and progressive muscle weakness. Disease severity in SMA can range from patients who may survive for only a short time after birth to patients who live into adulthood with varying degrees of morbidity. The underlying pathology of SMA is caused by insufficient production of a protein known as “survival of motor neuron,” or SMN. The SMN protein, essential for the survival of motor neurons, is encoded by two genes, SMN1 and SMN2.

| ● | SMN1 genes produce the majority of functional SMN protein; healthy individuals have one or two functional copies of SMN1, while patients with SMA have mutations in or deletions of both copies of the gene.

| ● | SMN2 genes produce only 10% to 20% of functional SMN protein and an individual’s copy number of the SMN2 gene can range from zero to eight. In SMA patients, the number of SMN2 genes present in their genome is correlated with disease onset and severity; patients who have a lower number of SMN2 gene copies generally develop earlier and more severe SMA, because they produce less SMN protein.

SMA Natural History and Epidemiology

SMA, the most common monogenic cause of death in infants, is a rare neuromuscular disorder. The disease affects an estimated 1 to 2 per 100,000 people globally. Patients with SMA can be categorized as one of four types, Type 1 through Type 4. The majority of SMA patients currently living in the U.S. and Europe are estimated as having Type 2 or Type 3 disease, although it should be noted that this percentage may evolve over time and the definitions of traditional SMA types are themselves evolving. Non-ambulatory Type 2 and Type 3 SMA, as they have traditionally been defined, is the initial focus of investigation in our SMA development program.

Unmet Medical Need in SMA

We classify the emerging landscape of novel medicines for patients with SMA into two distinct but complementary therapeutic strategies: 1) SMN-targeted therapy (also known as SMN corrector therapy or SMN-directed therapy); and 2) muscle-targeted therapy. Despite progress in the development of SMN-targeted therapies, a high unmet medical need to improve motor function remains. We believe that the advancement of muscle-targeted therapy will be necessary to address this important gap.

SMN-targeted therapies are aimed at addressing the SMN deficiency to prevent further motor neuron deterioration, thus modifying the course of disease. This category includes antisense oligonucleotide and small molecule approaches to increase SMN2 expression as well as gene therapy to deliver the SMN1 gene. Early intervention at a very young age is therefore thought to be essential to prevent significant motor functional deterioration. However, for the vast majority of SMA patients living today, this early intervention window has been missed, and such individuals suffer from severe functional impairment. Thus, regardless of the precise nature or mechanism of action for any given SMN-targeted therapy, we believe that most SMA patients will continue to experience clinically significant functional deficits.

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Apitegromab Development Overview in SMA

Apitegromab is being developed as a potential first muscle-targeted therapy for patients with SMA to address the significant existing unmet need. We believe the new standard of care will consist of a muscle-targeted therapy, complemented by an SMN-targeted therapy in order to drive clinically meaningful impacts for patients.

Regulatory Status

Following a successful clinical development program, we submitted a BLA for apitegromab for the treatment of children and adults with SMA to the FDA in January 2025 and the BLA was granted priority review designation. Priority review designation conveys that the FDA has determined that if apitegromab is approved, it could offer significant improvement in safety or effectiveness in the treatment of the serious condition of SMA. In September 2025, we received a CRL from the FDA related to observations identified during a routine general site inspection of a third-party fill-finish facility. The facility was issued a Form 483 by the FDA in July 2025, and the facility was classified as OAI in October 2025. The observations were site-related and not specific to apitegromab. The CRL did not cite any other approvability concerns, including apitegromab’s efficacy and safety data, or the third-party drug substance manufacturer. In November 2025, we completed a constructive in-person Type A meeting with the FDA that included participation of representatives from the third-party fill-finish facility. Also in November 2025, the third-party fill-finish facility received a warning letter from the FDA and continues to work with the FDA to resolve the outstanding issues cited in the warning letter. We plan to resubmit the apitegromab BLA at such time after the facility resolves the cGMP deficiencies identified in the CRL.

In March 2025, we submitted our marketing authorisation application (“MAA”) for apitegromab for the treatment of children and adults with SMA to the European Medicines Agency (“EMA”) and received validation of the application. Validation confirms that the application includes the essential regulatory elements required for scientific assessment of the MAA and the scientific evaluation process by the EMA’s Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use can begin.

The FDA granted Fast Track designation, Rare Pediatric Disease designation and Orphan Drug designation to apitegromab for the treatment of SMA in May 2021, August 2020 and March 2018, respectively. The EMA granted PRIME designation in March 2021, and the EC granted orphan medicinal product designation in December 2018 to apitegromab for the treatment of SMA.

Assuming marketing approval is obtained, we plan to commercially launch apitegromab in the U.S., with a commercial launch of apitegromab in Europe to follow.

Phase 3 SAPPHIRE Pivotal Trial

On October 7, 2024, we announced positive top-line data from our Phase 3 SAPPHIRE clinical trial evaluating the efficacy and safety of apitegromab in children and adults with SMA. The study achieved its primary endpoint. At the March 2025 Muscular Dystrophy Association Clinical & Scientific Conference, we presented additional data related to secondary endpoint analyses in which apitegromab demonstrated a clinically meaningful and consistent benefit in motor function across pre-specified patient subgroups.

SAPPHIRE was a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, Phase 3 clinical trial that evaluated the safety and efficacy of apitegromab in non-ambulatory patients with Types 2 and 3 SMA who were receiving current standard of care therapies with an approved SMN-targeted therapy (either nusinersen or risdiplam). SAPPHIRE enrolled 156 patients ages 2–12 years old in the main efficacy population. These patients were randomized 1:1:1 to receive either apitegromab 10 mg/kg, apitegromab 20 mg/kg, or placebo by intravenous infusion every 4 weeks. An exploratory population that enrolled 32 patients ages 13–21 years old was also evaluated. These patients were randomized 2:1 to receive either apitegromab 20 mg/kg or placebo.

The study achieved its primary endpoint, demonstrating a statistically significant and clinically meaningful improvement for apitegromab compared to placebo in motor function as measured by the Hammersmith Functional Motor Scale Expanded (“HFMSE”) in SMA patients on chronic dosing of standard of care SMN-targeted therapies (either nusinersen

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or risdiplam). Based upon the similar pharmacological profiles of the 20 mg/kg and 10 mg/kg doses of apitegromab, the statistical analysis plan was prespecified to analyze both the combined dose (10 mg/kg and 20 mg/kg) and the 20 mg/kg dose, each compared to placebo, as the primary analysis. Statistical significance was achieved per the prespecified statistical analysis plan (Hochberg multiplicity adjustment) for the primary analysis where the p-value needs to be ≤0.025 if only one prespecified analysis crosses the statistical significance boundary of ≤ 0.05.

| ● | In the main efficacy population (ages 2–12), the mean difference in change from baseline in HFMSE was 1.8 points (p =0.0192) for all patients receiving apitegromab 10 mg/kg and 20 mg/kg (n=106) compared to placebo (n=50). Patients receiving 20 mg/kg of apitegromab (n=53) showed a 1.4 point mean difference compared to placebo (p=0.1149).

| ● | ​The prespecified analysis of the 10 mg/kg dose showed that patients receiving 10 mg/kg of apitegromab (n=53) showed an improvement of 2.2 points (nominal p=0.0121) compared to placebo.

| ● | ​Based upon PK/PD data from the SAPPHIRE trial, similar levels of target engagement were observed for the 10 mg/kg and 20 mg/kg dose groups.

​Motor function outcomes were meaningful and consistent across the main efficacy population and in the ages 13–21 exploratory population and favored apitegromab (n=22) compared to placebo (n=10).

The table below summarizes the changes from baseline in HFMSE total score at month 12 across the various dose and age groups studied in SAPPHIRE.

Change from Baseline in HFMSE Total Score at Month 12*

Abbreviations: CI, Confidence Interval; LS, Least Squares.

*n values at 12-month endpoint

30.4% of patients receiving apitegromab in the main efficacy population (ages 2-12) had ≥3 point improvement in HFMSE at Month 12 versus 12.5% of patients on placebo, as shown below.

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Proportion of Patients With ≥3 Point Improvement at Month 12 in HFMSE

Proportion of patients achieving ≥3 Point Improvement in HFMSE was higher for apitegromab vs. placebo in combined dose (odds ratio 3.0, p=0.0256)

Abbreviation: SOC = standard of care.

Patients receiving apitegromab in the main efficacy population (ages 2–12) demonstrated early motor function improvement compared to placebo from the first measured time point at 8 weeks, and clinical benefit expanded at 52 weeks as measured by HFMSE, as shown below.

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HFMSE Improvement vs. Placebo in SAPPHIRE

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Abbreviations: CI=Confidence Interval; HFMSE=Hammersmith Functional Motor Scale Expanded; LS=Least Squares; SOC=standard of care.

Treatment with apitegromab was well-tolerated across all age groups. There were no clinically relevant differences in the adverse event profile by dose, 10 mg/kg versus 20 mg/kg. No new safety findings were observed in the SAPPHIRE clinical trial; the profile was consistent with that observed in the Phase 2 TOPAZ clinical trial, including an extension study which had over four years of treatment as of the cut-off date. Serious adverse events (“SAEs”) were consistent with the underlying disease and the current standard of care received by patients; no SAEs were assessed as related to apitegromab. There were no study drug discontinuations due to adverse events. The most common adverse events were pyrexia, nasopharyngitis and cough, observed in 29.2%, 24.5% and 24.5% of patients in the main efficacy population (10 mg/kg and 20 mg/kg combined), respectively. The table below summarizes the adverse events observed in the trial.

Summary of Adverse Events in SAPPHIRE

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We are also continuing our long-term extension study, ONYX, for patients from both the TOPAZ and SAPPHIRE studies, who are receiving apitegromab in conjunction with current standard of care. Following trial completion, 98% of SAPPHIRE patients (185/188) enrolled in the ONYX open-label expansion study.

Phase 2 TOPAZ Proof-of-Concept Trial

Apitegromab was evaluated in our Phase 2 TOPAZ proof-of-concept clinical trial for the treatment of patients with Type 2 and Type 3 SMA, and positive 12-month top-line results were announced in April 2021. We have subsequently presented data from the TOPAZ trial over 24 months (2022), 36 months (2023), and 48 months (2024).

We completed enrollment in our Phase 2 TOPAZ proof-of-concept trial of apitegromab in SMA in January 2020. TOPAZ was a Phase 2 active treatment study evaluating the safety, efficacy, PK, and PD of apitegromab 2 and 20 mg/kg in 58 patients ages 2 to 21 years old with Type 2 and Type 3 SMA (non-ambulatory and ambulatory). One patient discontinued from the 12-month treatment period for reasons that were determined to be unrelated to apitegromab treatment. All remaining patients completed the 12-month treatment period and opted into the extension period.

The clinical trial consisted of three distinct cohorts of patients with Type 2 or Type 3 SMA and evaluated the safety and efficacy of apitegromab over a 12-month treatment period. All patients in the clinical trial received apitegromab dosed every four weeks (Q4W) either as a monotherapy or in conjunction with an approved SMN therapy. The primary efficacy objectives evaluated in the TOPAZ trial, HFMSE and Revised Hammersmith Scale (“RHS”), are clinically meaningful outcome measures validated for SMA. The HFMSE is a validated measure for the assessment of gross motor function in SMA, while the RHS is a revised version and used for ambulatory patients in TOPAZ.

Results of the primary analysis showed that improvement in motor function, as measured by RHS or HFMSE, was observed at Month 12 in the majority of patients, regardless of age, SMA type, or time of SMN therapy initiation (Crawford Neurology 2024). Ambulatory patients ages 5 to 21 years old showed stabilization in RHS scores over the 12 months of treatment, while non-ambulatory patients showed overall improvement. Substantial improvement in motor function, a mean improvement of 6.2 points for HFMSE total score at Month 12, was observed in Cohort 3, with dose response between those randomized to 20 mg/kg and 2 mg/kg (7.1 points and 5.3 points, respectively).

Treatment with apitegromab was well tolerated. Incidence and severity of adverse events were consistent with the underlying patient population and SMN therapy. The most frequently reported treatment-emergent adverse events (“TEAEs”) included headache (24%), pyrexia (22%), upper respiratory tract infection (22%), cough (22%), and nasopharyngitis (21%). Five patients experienced a serious treatment-emergent adverse event, all assessed by the respective trial investigator as unrelated to apitegromab.

In August 2024, we reported that long-term apitegromab data continued to show sustained motor function benefit over 48 months (Crawford WMS 2024). Over 90 percent of non-ambulatory patients remained on treatment in the extension study over 48 months. TEAEs were consistent with previous reports at 12 months, with no new findings.

Phase 1 Healthy Volunteer Clinical Trial Results

The randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, first-in-human, Phase 1 clinical trial was designed to evaluate the safety and tolerability, immunogenicity, PK, and PD of IV administered apitegromab in adult healthy volunteers. A total of 66 subjects were enrolled, including 40 subjects in the single ascending dose (“SAD”) and 26 subjects in the multiple ascending dose portions of the study. Full results from the Phase 1 clinical trial were presented at the Cure SMA Annual Conference in June 2019.

Safety and immunogenicity results. Apitegromab was shown to be well-tolerated with no apparent safety signals. There were no dose-limiting toxicities identified up to the highest tested dose of 30 mg/kg, treatment-related serious adverse events or hypersensitivity reactions. Immunogenicity was assessed by anti-drug antibody testing, and all subjects tested negative.

Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics results. Apitegromab displayed a PK profile generally consistent with that commonly observed with monoclonal antibodies. Drug exposure was dose proportional, and the serum half-life was

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approximately 23 to 33 days across the apitegromab dose groups. The findings supported the investigation of a once every 4-week dosing regimen in the Phase 2 TOPAZ clinical trial.

Mean serum concentrations of latent myostatin in the SAD were < 20 ng/ml in the pre-treatment baselines for apitegromab treated subjects as well as in placebo subjects throughout the study. Following placebo treatment, there was no meaningful change in the latent myostatin biomarker concentrations. Following single doses of apitegromab at dose levels of 3 mg/kg or greater, marked increases in latent myostatin biomarker concentrations in the serum, by at least an order of magnitude, were observed following apitegromab treatment. This finding demonstrates successful target engagement and provides initial proof-of-mechanism in humans of our therapeutic approach of targeting the latent form of growth factors. The observation also corroborates our biological understanding that the vast majority of drug target (pro and latent forms of myostatin) resides within skeletal muscle rather than within the systemic circulation.

Apitegromab engages latent myostatin in Phase 1 clinical trial subjects

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Phase 2 OPAL Study in Infants and Toddlers with SMA

We are conducting a Phase 2 study, called OPAL, which is designed to evaluate apitegromab in infants and toddlers with SMA under two years of age who have received an approved SMN1-targeted gene therapy or who are receiving ongoing treatment with an approved SMN2-targeted therapy. The study will evaluate two different doses of apitegromab over 48 weeks. Key endpoints include PK, PD, efficacy, safety, and tolerability. Patient enrollment and dosing are underway.

Apitegromab for the Treatment of Patients with FSHD

We are developing apitegromab for the treatment of patients with FSHD. The IND application is cleared, and we plan to initiate a Phase 2 randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial, called FORGE, in mid-2026.

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The decision to advance apitegromab for patients with FSHD is based on unmet medical need, learnings from clinical trials of apitegromab, our knowledge of FSHD disease pathology, and preclinical data in the translational gold-standard FLExDUX4 mouse model. Importantly, randomized studies of exercise programs in patients with FSHD suggest that muscle in these patients has the capacity to improve, and a study of anabolic agents in patients with FSHD demonstrated the potential for increases in lean mass and muscle function. Taken together, these studies support the hypothesis that FSHD patients have functional muscle amenable to apitegromab treatment. Further, our studies in the FLExDUX4 model provide a mechanistic rationale for the approach. Specifically, a murine version of apitegromab in the FLExDUX4 model of FSHD has demonstrated robust increases in muscle mass compared to control animals following 28 days of treatment. Additionally, significant improvements in muscle force and consistent gains in endurance at 28 days were achieved in animals treated with the murine version of apitegromab as compared to control animals.

About FSHD

FSHD is a rare, devastating neuromuscular disease characterized by progressive muscle atrophy that leads to cumulative loss of function and loss of independence. The disease is characterized by muscle weakness in the face, shoulders, upper arms, and/or lower extremities. Key symptoms include difficulty pursing lips, scapular winging, weak upper arms, asymmetrical muscle weakness, fatigue, and chronic pain. FSHD is caused by myotoxic effects from abnormal expression of DUX4. In the most common form of the disease, known as FSHD1, DUX4 expression results from hypomethylation of the D4Z4 repeat array on chromosome 4qA. Patients with larger D4Z4 contractions (i.e., 1-3 repeats) typically experience earlier onset, more rapid disease progression, and greater disease severity. Disease onset most often occurs between the ages of 15 and 30 but can begin at any time. A rarer form of FHSD, known as FSHD2 results from mutations in the SMCHD1 gene, which encodes a chromatin-modifying protein involved in epigentic repression of the D4Z4 locus. These mutations lead to hypomethylation of the D4Z4 region and derepression of DUX4 in the absence of a D4Z4 contraction.

FSHD Natural History and Epidemiology

FSHD is one of the most common neuromuscular diseases. It is estimated that there are more than 30,000 patients diagnosed in the U.S. and Europe suffering from FSHD. Over 80% of patients report moderate to severe impact on activities involving arms, core, and/or legs, and approximately 20% will become wheelchair dependent over time.

Unmet Medical Need in FSHD

There are no approved treatments for patients with FSHD. Current standard of care, which includes physical therapy, only addresses symptoms, and not the underlying disease. Therefore, a therapeutic that can lead to potential improvements in muscle and muscle-strength could have a transformative impact for patients.

Apitegromab Clinical Development Overview in FSHD

The Phase 2 FORGE study is expected to enroll approximately 60 patients ages 18 – 60 with genetically confirmed FSHD1 or FSHD2 and a clinical severity score of 1.5 to 3.0. Additionally, patients will have a baseline 10-meter walk/run test (“MWRT”) of 5 seconds or less. Patients will be randomized 1:1 to receive apitegromab 10 mg/kg IV every 4 weeks, or placebo for a treatment duration of 52-weeks. The primary endpoint of the study is mean lean muscle volume (“LMV”) change from baseline at 52 weeks. Key secondary and other endpoints include mean LMV change from baseline at 6 months, mean change from baseline in additional muscle parameters (6 and 12 months), and quantitative myometry testing (“QMT”), as well as safety, PK/PD, and antidrug antibody assessments.

Subcutaneous Apitegromab

We are advancing a subcutaneous formulation of apitegromab. This format is intended to provide optionality for patients as a small volume, self- or caregiver-administered anti-myostatin antibody suitable for an autoinjector. A Phase 1 study in healthy volunteers has been completed, demonstrating that SC apitegromab has favorable bioavailability and a pharmacodynamic profile comparable to IV administered apitegromab.

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Further development activities are ongoing, including planned FDA and EMA regulatory engagements.

Phase 1 Healthy Volunteer Clinical Trial Results

We conducted a Phase 1 study designed to evaluate apitegromab in 45 healthy volunteers randomized 1:1:1 to receive doses of 800 mg IV, 800 mg SC, and 100 mg SC. The study showed that at 800 mg, SC and IV apitegromab produced overlapping PD responses as assessed by serum total latent myostatin concentration.

Apitegromab in Additional Rare, Severe, and Debilitating Neuromuscular Disorders

We see potential for apitegromab broadly across SMA and in additional rare, severe, and debilitating neuromuscular diseases where muscle atrophy is a key component of disease pathogenesis. In some settings, we believe that disease-stabilizing therapy may be necessary to address the underlying defect, which can then be complemented by the potential motor function-building benefit of apitegromab. In settings where sufficient healthy muscle is present, apitegromab may have the potential to serve as a monotherapy.

SRK-439: Subcutaneously Administered Novel, Potent Anti-Latent Myostatin Inhibitor

SRK-439 is a novel, investigational, subcutaneously administered myostatin inhibitor that binds to pro- and latent myostatin with a sub-nanomolar affinity and inhibitory potency, while maintaining selectivity (i.e., no GDF11 or Activin A binding), and is in development for the treatment of people with rare, severe, and devastating neuromuscular diseases.

We are developing SRK-439 by leveraging our innovative platform and integrating clinically-validated structural insights derived from more than a decade of expertise in myostatin biology and therapeutic development.

A Phase 1 study in healthy volunteers is underway, and topline data are expected in the second half of 2026. Key endpoints include safety and tolerability, and PK/PD measures.

In pre-clinical studies, SRK-439 increased lean mass in non-human primates. SRK-439 was administered subcutaneously to healthy cynomolgus monkeys at doses ranging from 0.3 – 10 mg/kg. All doses tested resulted in increases in lean mass relative to vehicle control, consistent with robust target engagement at low doses. Results are summarized in the figure below and are consistent with the higher affinity of SRK-439 for pro- and latent myostatin. SRK-439 was generally well tolerated in GLP, IND-enabling toxicology studies, with no dose-limiting toxicities observed at the doses evaluated.

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In addition, we have explored SRK-439 in preclinical models of obesity. Semaglutide, a GLP-1 receptor agonist, results in weight loss in a diet-induced obesity mouse model but is also associated with significant loss of lean mass. In a three-week study, administration of SRK-439 in combination with semaglutide resulted in dose-dependent preservation of lean mass. We observed effects with doses as low as 0.3 mg/kg. Enhancement of fat mass loss was also observed, resulting in improved body composition.

We confirmed these results in a 12-week study, demonstrating a durable effect of SRK-439, and showed a similar benefit when SRK-439 was combined with tirzepatide.

We further explored the ability of anti-myostatin therapy to preserve lean mass following withdrawal of semaglutide therapy. Diet-induced obesity mice were treated with SRK-439 at 10 mg/kg and semaglutide at 0.4 mg/kg for a period of 28 days. Then, semaglutide therapy was terminated, and study outcomes were measured at 63 days. SRK-439 led to preservation of lean mass during semaglutide treatment and maintenance of lean mass upon semaglutide discontinuation. Importantly, fat mass regain was attenuated upon discontinuation of semaglutide, illustrating the potential benefit of myostatin inhibitors even after GLP-1 therapies are stopped.

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Chow = standard diet; HFD = high-fat diet

Additional Programs

Apitegromab for Preservation of Lean Mass During Tirzepatide-Induced Weight Loss

In May 2024, we initiated the Phase 2 EMBRAZE proof-of-concept trial, designed to assess the safety and efficacy of apitegromab to preserve muscle mass in individuals living with obesity on background therapy of a GLP-1 receptor agonist. In June 2025, we announced positive topline data from this study that showed significant preservation of lean mass with apitegromab during tirzepatide-induced weight loss.

The EMBRAZE trial was designed to assess the ability to preserve lean body mass associated with tirzepatide-induced weight loss in patients with obesity (BMI ≥30.0 kg/m2) or overweight (BMI ≥27.0 kg/m2 with one or more weight-related co-morbidities). Treatment was administered over a 24-week period, and patients were randomized into two treatment arms: apitegromab with tirzepatide and placebo with tirzepatide.

Topline results successfully demonstrated proof-of-concept for a highly selective, anti-myostatin antibody to preserve lean mass, thus improving quality of weight loss with tirzepatide therapy. The 24-week data demonstrated the following:

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Consistent with prior apitegromab studies, the EMBRAZE trial demonstrated a well-tolerated and encouraging safety profile. The incidence of adverse events was generally similar between apitegromab and placebo, with adverse events observed consistent with the known safety profile of tirzepatide. No subjects experienced serious adverse events (SAEs) or discontinuations considered to be related to apitegromab treatment, and there were no deaths.

SRK-181: A selective inhibitor of Latent TGFβ1 for the treatment of advanced solid tumors

An estimated eight to ten million patients are treated with immune checkpoint inhibitors in the US annually. Although these therapies have agents have transformed the standard of care in oncology, the majority of patients do not respond or develop resistance to therapy. Particularly in refractory solid tumor settings, there is a significant need for safe and effective therapies to address this challenge and enhance the efficacy of anti-PD-(L)1 therapies.

Increased signaling by TGFβ is a key driver of a number of pathological processes, including immune system evasion by cancer cells, the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment, and bone marrow fibrosis associated with hematological disorders. Our data demonstrate that TGFβ1 is the key isoform with the highest expression in most human tumors relative to TGFβ2 or TGFβ3. Historically, selectively targeting TGFβ1 signaling has been challenging due to the inability of either small molecule inhibitors or antibodies to avoid off-target inhibition of TGFβ2 and TGFβ3. Treatment of animals with these non-selective TGFβ inhibitors has been associated with a range of toxicities, most notably cardiac toxicity. Furthermore, since each of these growth factors signals through the same TGFβ receptor, ALK5, inhibitors of the TGFβ receptor kinase suffer from similar dose-limiting toxicities.

SRK-181 is a highly selective inhibitor of latent TGFβ1 under development for the treatment of locally advanced or metastatic solid tumors that are resistant to anti-PD-(L)1 therapies. Pre-clinical studies supported our therapeutic approach, demonstrating:

| ● | Strong safety profile, avoiding toxicities associated with this class. No dose-limiting toxicities or adverse events were observed in four-week and 12-week GLP toxicology studies in rats (up to 200 mg/kg/week) and non-human primates (300 mg/kg/week). In a pilot nonclinical toxicology study in rats, non-selective TGFβ inhibitors resulted in cardiac toxicity and mortality, which was not seen with SRK-181.

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| ● | Robust efficacy across multiple mouse models that recapitulate PD-1 resistant cancers. In mouse models that recapitulate the immune-excluded phenotype and are resistant to PD-1 blockade, treatment with SRK-181-mIgG1, the murine analog of SRK-181, in combination with an anti-PD-1 antibody converted non-responsive tumors into responders. In the MBT-2 bladder cancer model, the Cloudman S91 melanoma model, and the EMT6 breast cancer model, tumors were poorly responsive or unresponsive to either anti-PD-1 or SRK-181-mIgG1 as single agents, with minimal effects on tumor growth. However, in representative experiments, the combination of SRK-181-mIgG1 and anti-PD-1 resulted in tumor regressions of 72%, 57% and 70% in these three mouse models, respectively. Furthermore, the combination treatment led to statistically significant survival benefit in all three models.

Our Phase 1 DRAGON clinical trial was intended to initially evaluate our therapeutic hypothesis that SRK-181 in combination with anti-PD-(L)1 therapy may overcome resistance to anti-PD-(L)1 therapy and lead to anti-tumor responses. This clinical trial in patients with locally advanced or metastatic solid tumors was completed in 2025 and investigated the safety, PK and efficacy of SRK-181. The DRAGON trial consisted of two parts: Part A (dose escalation of SRK-181 as a single-agent or in combination with an approved anti-PD-(L)1 therapy) and Part B (dose expansion evaluating SRK-181 in combination with an approved anti-PD-(L)1 antibody therapy). Part B encompassed five cohorts, including urothelial carcinoma, cutaneous melanoma, non-small cell lung cancer, clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC) and head and neck squamous cell carcinoma, and commenced in 2021, completed enrollment in December 2023, and was completed in 2025.

Safety, efficacy and biomarker data were presented in June 2024 at the ASCO annual meeting, in November 2024 at the SITC 39th Annual Meeting, and in a 2026 publication in Nature Medicine. The data showed encouraging responses in heavily pretreated and anti-PD-(L)1 resistant patients across multiple tumor types, and supported proof-of-concept for SRK-181 in 30 heavily pretreated patients with ccRCC resistant to anti-PD-1. SRK-181 was generally well tolerated and showed promising anti-tumor activity in this patient population. Of 30 patients in the ccRCC cohort, six patients treated with SRK-181 in combination with pembrolizumab had confirmed response with an objective response rate (ORR) of 20%, including one complete response. Additionally, we observed responses in melanoma (ORR 18%), head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (ORR 9%), and urothelial carcinoma (ORR 9%). Those patients who responded tended to experience a durable and sustained response. For instance, in ccRCC the median duration of response was 10.6 months (minimum: 3.4 months, maximum: 28.3 months). In the biomarker analysis, SRK-181 combined with pembrolizumab established proof of mechanism in patients by creating a proinflammatory tumor microenvironment across multiple tumor types. In ccRCC patients, responders had higher basal levels of activated CD8+ T cells, higher T-regs, as well as higher TGFβ1 expression. These biomarkers may inform patient selection strategies for future studies. Safety data from ccRCC cohort showed SRK-181 was generally well tolerated.

We believe that the DRAGON trial achieved its study objectives by showing objective, durable clinical responses in patients resistant to PD-1 therapy beyond what is expected from continuing PD-1 alone. The responses observed in this study are particularly notable given the advanced and highly refractory patient population.

In addition to cancer immunotherapy, we believe SRK-181 has the potential for use in other oncology settings, such as in earlier lines of therapy with immunotherapy-naïve patients, in solid tumors not tested in the DRAGON study, in combination with other therapies beyond checkpoint inhibitors, or as a component of a bispecific antibody.

SRK-373: A Selective Inhibitor of the Latent TGFβ1 in the Extracellular Matrix for the Treatment Fibrotic Diseases

Fibrosis is a pathological feature of many diseases and can occur in virtually all organs, where it is characterized by excessive accumulation of extracellular matrix and accounts for substantial morbidity and mortality. The TGFβ signaling pathway is a well-established central driver of fibrotic diseases and inhibition of this pathway has been shown to improve outcomes in relevant animal models of hepatic, renal, pulmonary, and other fibrotic diseases. In addition, a non-selective inhibitor of TGFβ signaling that inhibits all 3 isoforms (isoform 1, 2, and 3) of TGFβ showed clinical improvement in patients with systemic sclerosis, a fibrotic connective tissue disease. However, such non-selective inhibition of all TGFβ isoforms have been associated with significant safety liabilities, including bleeding episodes, and cardiac toxicities. Based on knock out animal models (a model where researchers have inactivated, or "knocked out," an

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existing gene by replacing it or disrupting it with an artificial piece of DNA), these safety findings are believed to be associated with inhibition of the TGFβ2, and TGFβ3 isoforms. These data support the hypothesis that selective inhibition of TGFβ1 may retain antifibrotic efficacy while offering an improved safety profile.

Given that immune cell activation may play a key role in fibrotic disease development, selective targeting of only matrix associated TGFβ1, at the primary site of fibrosis manifestation, while avoiding immune cell associated TGFβ1 is critical to maintaining efficacy while avoiding potential long-term liabilities. Based on this scientific rationale, we utilized our proprietary platform to discover and develop antibodies that selectively inhibit activation of latent TGFβ1 in the fibrotic extracellular matrix without perturbing TGFβ1 presented by cells of the immune system.

We selected SRK-373, a highly potent, anti-latent TGFβ1 antibody that selectively inhibits TGFβ1 activation within the extracellular matrix by targeting latent TGFβ1 associated with latent TGFβ-binding proteins (LTBPs)enabling specific inhibition of TGFβ1 in fibrotic tissue. SRK-373 demonstrated significant antifibrotic activity across multiple preclinical rodent models of fibrotic diseases. For instance, SRK-373 reduced TGFβ1 signaling in a mouse model of Alport Syndrome and reduced fibrotic progression in a rat model of chronic kidney disease. SRK-373 also demonstrated a robust therapeutic index at all doses tested in a 13-week non-GLP mouse safety study.

SRK-256: A High-Affinity Inhibitor of HJV/RGMc for the Treatment of Patients with Iron-Restricted Anemias

A number of disease states as well as rare genetic mutations can disrupt iron homeostasis and can result in iron deficiency. These imbalances in iron levels can lead to detrimental complications and are the basis of mortalities and morbidities across a range of diseases, collectively referred to as iron-restricted anemias or anemia of chronic disease. Anemia of chronic disease is a highly prevalent class of indications, including chronic kidney disease, cancer, inflammatory bowel disease, and others, and is estimated to impact approximately 14 to 38 million patients in the United States.

Hepcidin is a peptide hormone that is produced in the liver and plays a major role in regulating systemic iron homeostasis. Aberrantly increased hepcidin expression is a hallmark of several chronic and devastating diseases where it drives iron-restricted anemia and contributes to disease-associated morbidity and mortality. Hepcidin expression is controlled via the bone morphogenetic protein (“BMP”) signaling pathway, BMPs 2/6 in particular, with repulsive guidance molecule c / hemojuvelin (“RGMc/HJV”) serving as a key co-receptor. By targeting the co-receptor which is predominantly expressed in the liver, we believe that iron homeostasis can be selectively modulated while avoiding systemic inhibition of BMPs 2/6 which play broader roles in processes throughout the body. The RGM family consists of three closely homologous members, RGMa, RGMb and RGMc/HJV. Human genetic mutations as well as knockout animal studies have demonstrated that RGMc/HJV plays a predominant role in iron homeostasis, whereas RGMa and RGMb have broader roles in development and organ homeostasis. The data support the rationale for selectively targeting RGMc/HJV as a therapeutic approach for iron restricted anemia, particularly in chronic diseases characterized by elevated hepcidin.

We utilized our proprietary platform to discover and develop antibodies that selectively bind and inhibit RGMc, while avoiding RGMa and RGMb, and selected SRK-256 as a development candidate. SRK-256 is highly selective and potent inhibitor of RGMc that has demonstrated efficacy in preclinical models of anemia. This approach offers a clear PK/PD relationship, with suppression of hepcidin expression and mobilization of stored iron correlating closely with SRK-256 exposure. We further showed that SRK-256 effectively increased serum iron levels in the presence of inflammation in a PGPS-induced rat model of anemia. In addition to its favorable selectivity profile, SRK-256 offers the potential for best-in-class bioavailability based on studies in non-human primates. We have conducted preliminary IND-enabling manufacturing activities and a non-GLP toxicity study, which had no relevant toxicological findings.

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| VI. | License Agreements

a. Gilead Collaboration

On December 19, 2018, we entered into a three-year collaboration with Gilead to discover and develop therapeutics that target TGFβ-driven signaling, a central regulator of fibrosis (“the Gilead Agreement”). In connection with the Gilead Agreement, we received an upfront payment of $50 million and an equity investment of $30 million.

In December 2019, we achieved a $25 million preclinical milestone under the Gilead Agreement for the successful demonstration of efficacy in preclinical in vivo proof-of-concept studies.

On January 6, 2022, we entered into a letter agreement with Gilead which (i) confirmed that the collaboration period under the Gilead Agreement had expired as of December 19, 2021, and (ii) agreed the option exercise period for all programs under the Gilead Agreement had been terminated as of January 6, 2022.

b. Adimab Agreement

On March 12, 2019, we entered into an amended and restated collaboration agreement (the “Adimab Agreement”) with Adimab, LLC (“Adimab”). Under the Adimab Agreement, as amended, we selected a number of biological targets against which Adimab used its proprietary platform technology to discover and/or optimize antibodies based upon mutually agreed upon research plans, and we have the ability to select a specified number of additional biological targets against which Adimab will provide additional antibody discovery and optimization services. During the research term and evaluation term for a given research program with Adimab (“Research Program”), we have a non-exclusive worldwide license under Adimab’s technology to perform certain research activities and to evaluate the program antibodies to determine whether we want to exercise our option to obtain an exclusive license to exploit such antibodies (a “Development and Commercialization Option”).

Pursuant to the Adimab Agreement, we previously paid Adimab a one-time, non-creditable, non-refundable technology access fee. We are also obligated to make certain technical milestone payments to Adimab on a Research Program-by-Research Program basis. Upon exercise of a Development and Commercialization Option, we are obligated to pay to Adimab a non-creditable, nonrefundable option exercise fee of either (i) a low seven-digit dollar amount or (ii) a mid- six-digit dollar amount, based on the antibodies in the given Research Program, plus, in either case, an amount equal to any technical milestone payment which was not previously paid with respect to such Research Program and less, in either case, any option extension fees paid with respect to such Research Program. On a Product (as defined in the Adimab Agreement)-by-Product basis, we will pay Adimab upon the achievement of various clinical and regulatory milestone events with total milestone payments not to exceed mid-teen millions in the aggregate for a given Product. For any Product that is commercialized, on a country-by-country and Product-by-Product basis, we are obligated to pay to Adimab a low-to-mid single-digit percentage of annual worldwide net sales of such Product during the applicable royalty period in each country.

SRK-181 is subject to the terms of the Adimab Agreement, and in March 2019, we exercised our Development and Commercialization Option for the Research Program from which SRK-181 was generated. In January 2020 and December 2020, we exercised our Development and Commercialization Option for additional Research Programs.

| VII. | Intellectual Property

Our commercial success depends in part on our ability to protect intellectual property for our product candidates, including apitegromab, SRK-439 and SRK-181, and related methods, as well as our novel approach and proprietary platform for generating monoclonal antibodies; to secure freedom-to-operate to enable commercialization of our product candidates, if approved; and to prevent others from infringing upon our patent rights. Our policy is to seek to protect our intellectual property position by filing patent applications in key jurisdictions, including the U.S., Europe, Canada, Japan and Australia, covering our proprietary technology, inventions and improvements that are important to innovate, develop, sustain and implement our business.

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We file patent applications directed to compositions comprising our antibodies, classes of antibodies covering our product candidates, use of such antibodies for treating diseases, as well as related manufacturing methods. As of December 31, 2025, we have 32 pending and/or granted patent families across multiple programs. We continue to review and harvest new inventions for new patent filings and prosecute applications in key jurisdictions to strengthen our global patent estate.

As of December 31, 2025, four granted patents, EP2981822, EP3365368, EP3368069, EP3365368 and EP4358995 are the subject of ongoing opposition proceedings before the European Patent Office (“EPO”). We have no other contested proceedings relating to any patents as of that date, but we cannot provide any assurances that we will not have such proceedings at a later date. For more information regarding the risks related to our intellectual property, please see “Risk factors—Risks Related to Our Intellectual Property.”

a. Platform

Our novel approach to generating selective modulators of supracellular activation of growth factors is broadly embodied in our “platform” patent family, PCT/US2014/036933 (published as WO 2014/182676). This patent family is directed to methods for modulating the activation of the TGFβ superfamily of growth factors and methods for screening for a monoclonal antibody that specifically targets an inactive form of the growth factor complex, thereby preventing activation (e.g., release) of mature growth factor. The TGFβ superfamily is a group of more than 30 related growth factors/cytokines that mediate diverse biological processes and includes TGFβ1 and myostatin (also known as GDF-8). As of December 31, 2025, issued U.S. patents in the platform family include: U.S. Patents Nos. 9,573,995 (issued 02/21/2017); 9,758,576 (issued 09/12/2017); 9,580,500 (issued 02/28/2017); 9,399,676 (issued 07/26/2016); 9,758,577 (issued 09/12/2017); 10,597,443 (issued 03/24/2020); 10,981,981 (issued 04/20/2021); 11,827,698 (issued 11/28/2023); and 12,454,570 (issued 10/28/2025). There are also two granted European (“EP”) platform patent: EP2981822 (granted on 09/02/2020) and EP3816625 (granted on 09/17/2025). These U.S. and EP patents are projected to expire in May 2034.

Specifically, EP2981822 originally granted with composition-of-matter claims directed to an antibody capable of binding a recombinant antigen comprising pro-TGFβ1 or a growth factor-prodomain complex which comprises the TGFβ1 LAP complex, in addition to claims directed to methods of making such antibodies. EP2981822 is the subject of ongoing opposition proceedings before the EPO. It was revoked by the opposition division in November 2024. The revocation decision is the subject of appeal T0367/25, which is due to be heard by the EPO’s Technical Board of Appeal in November 2026.

EP3816625 has granted with claims that broadly cover manufacturing methods for generating an antibody that inhibits the release of GDF 8 from a pro/latent GDF-8/myostatin complex.

U.S. Patent No. 9,573,995 has issued composition-of-matter claims directed to an antibody that specifically binds to GARP associated with a human TGFβ1 LAP complex.

U.S. Patent No. 9,758,576 has issued composition-of-matter claims directed to an isolated monoclonal antibody, or a fragment thereof, that specifically binds the prodomain of a pro/latent GDF-8/myostatin complex, thereby preventing proteolytic cleavage between residues Arg 75 and Asp 76 of GDF-8/myostatin prodomain, so as to inhibit the release of mature GDF-8/myostatin growth factor from the complex.

U.S. Patent No. 9,580,500 has issued claims directed to phage display library-based antibody production methods for identifying an antibody that binds a GARP/proTGFβ1 complex.

U.S. Patent No. 9,399,676 has issued claims directed to phage display library-based antibody production methods for identifying an antibody that binds a pro/latent GDF-8 complex that has been subjected to enzymatic cleavage. Related product-by-process claims are included in issued U.S. Patent No. 9,758,577.

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U.S. Patent No. 10,597,443 has issued claims that broadly cover manufacturing methods for a pharmaceutical composition containing an antibody that binds a large latent complex of TGFβ, thereby modulating TGFβ signaling.

U.S. Patent No. 10,981,981 has issued claims that broadly cover manufacturing methods for a pharmaceutical composition containing an antibody that binds pro/latent GDF-8, but does not bind to mature GDF-8, and inhibits GDF-8 signaling.

U.S. Patent No. 11,827,698 has issued claims that broadly cover manufacturing methods for a pharmaceutical composition containing an antibody that binds pro/latent GDF-8, and inhibits release of mature GDF8 from the pro/latent GDF8 complex.

U.S. Patent No. 12,454,570 has issued claims that broadly cover methods of identifying an antibody that binds to human proGDF8 and inhibits GDF8/proGDF8 activation.

In addition, we have granted patents in this platform family in Australia, Israel and Singapore.

b. Myostatin Activation Inhibitors

Thirteen patent families have been filed to date to cover proprietary myostatin inhibitors and their use in the treatment of various muscle and metabolic diseases. Patent prosecution of these pending patent families is ongoing but relatively early.

Three families are directed to composition of matter claims that cover our proprietary antibodies. PCT/US2015/059468 (published as WO 2016/073853) broadly covers a class of monoclonal antibodies that specifically bind inactive precursors thereby preventing activation of myostatin. This patent family is projected to expire in November 2035. U.S. Patents 10,307,480, 11,135,291, and 11,925,683 issued in June 2019, October 2021, and March 2024, respectively, with claims directed to Scholar Rock proprietary antibodies that specifically bind pro/latent myostatin, including 29H4, the parental clone of apitegromab, and variants, as well as host cells and methods of making antibodies with pH sensitive binding to pro/latent myostatin.

A second family, PCT/US2016/052014 (published as WO 2017/049011), discloses the specific amino acid sequence of apitegromab and is projected to expire in September 2036. U.S. Patent 10,751,413 issued in August 2020, with claims directed to antibodies and pharmaceutical compositions comprising the heavy and light chain sequences of apitegromab, while U.S. Patent 11,439,704 issued in September 2022, with claims directed to a method of preventing muscle loss and/or reducing muscle atrophy or treating SMA by administering an antibody having the heavy and light chain sequences of apitegromab. The European counterparts were also granted as EP 3350220 B1 in May 2021 and EP 3922645 B1 in May 2025. The granted claims of EP 3350220 B1 relate to antibodies comprising the heavy and light chain variable region and full chain sequences of apitegromab, and pharmaceutical compositions of the antibodies. The granted claims of EP 3922645 relate to a pharmaceutical composition comprising an antibody comprising heavy and light chain variable region sequences sharing at least 98% identity to the variable region sequences of apitegromab, and a method of producing an antibody comprising the heavy and light chain variable regions of apitegromab.

A third family, PCT/US2023/085574 (published as WO2024138076), was filed with claims directed to specific amino acid sequences of novel antibodies in our proprietary myostatin inhibitor portfolio. This family is projected to expire in December 2043. U.S. Patent 12,338,279 was issued in June 2025 with claims directed to antibodies and pharmaceutical compositions covering SRK-439. National applications of this family are pending in over 20 jurisdictions.

The following patent families are directed to therapeutic uses/methods:

PCT/US2017/012606 (published as WO 2017/120523) broadly covers treatment methods for a number of muscle and neuromuscular disease and disorders using an antibody that specifically blocks the activation step of myostatin. This family is projected to expire in September 2036. The first U.S. application issued in May 2019 as U.S. Patent 10,287,345

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with claims drawn to methods for inhibiting myostatin activation using our proprietary activation inhibitors (such as apitegromab) to cause specified pharmacological effects to treat a variety of conditions including, muscle and metabolic disorders. A second U.S. application issued as U.S. Patent 10,882,904 in January 2021. The issued claims recite methods for inhibiting myostatin activation using an antibody comprising the heavy and light chain sequences of apitegromab for various indications. A third U.S. application issued as U.S. Patent 12,006,359 in June 2024. The issued claims are directed to a method of improving body composition by administering an antibody comprising heavy and light chain sequences of our proprietary activation inhibitors (such as apitegromab) or variants thereof.

PCT/US2017/037332 (published as WO 2017/218592) is directed to methods for treating neuromuscular diseases and selecting patient populations that are likely to respond to myostatin inhibition. This filing includes the treatment of SMA in patients who are on SMN therapies (e.g., SMN correctors/upregulators). This patent family is projected to expire in June 2037. The PCT application was nationalized in 11 jurisdictions, and applications in the three key jurisdictions (i.e., U.S., Europe and Japan) have granted, as well as in other countries. Specifically, the U.S. application granted in March of 2021 as U.S. Patent 10,946,036. The granted claims are directed to add-on or combination therapy for treating spinal muscular atrophy with a myostatin inhibitor and a neuronal corrector (such as SMN upregulator therapy). Similar claims have also granted in other countries including Japan (JP Patent No. 6823167, JP Patent No. 7161554, and JP Patent No. 7344337). JP Patent No. 6823167 and JP Patent No. 7344337 are the subject of invalidation trials. Likewise, the European counterpart granted as EP 3368069B1 and has been validated in 37 states. The originally granted European claims are directed to add-on therapy and combination therapy for the treatment of SMA using a myostatin-selective inhibitor, in conjunction with an SMN corrector therapy. EP 3368069B1 is currently the subject of ongoing opposition proceedings before the EPO. The patent was revoked by the opposition division in April 2024. The revocation decision is the subject of appeal T1416/24, which is due to be heard by the EPO’s Technical Board of Appeal in June 2026.

PCT/US2018/012686 (published as WO 2018/129395) relates to the treatment of metabolic diseases with a myostatin activation inhibitor and is projected to expire in January 2038. The PCT was nationalized in 2019 and is in the early stages of prosecution. A U.S. patent issued in October of 2021 as U.S. 11,155,611, with claims directed to methods of making a pharmaceutical composition comprising a myostatin-selective inhibitor, comprising screening for an antibody that is capable of decreasing expression of pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase 4 (PDK4) and increasing expression of pyruvate dehydrogenase phosphatase 1 (PDP1). A Japanese patent (JP 7198757) issued in December 2022 with claims directed to a pro/latent myostatin-specific inhibitor for use in treating or preventing obesity or metabolic disorder in a subject on a calorie restriction diet. Similar claims have issued in Europe in 2023 (EP 3565592).

In addition to the five pending patent families listed above, there are also three PCT applications related to the phase 2 and phase 3 clinical trials of apitegromab in SMA. PCT/US2021/056517 (published as WO2022/093724) is directed to inventions deriving from the phase 2 clinical trial of apitegromab. This PCT was nationalized broadly. If granted, patents deriving from this PCT would expire in 2041. A European application granted as EP 4232151 B1 in October 2025. The granted claims are directed to a composition comprising apitegromab for use in treating SMA at a 10 mg/kg dose with a defined dosing regimen for treating SMA. Another PCT application was filed in 2023, PCT/US2023/020843 (published as WO 2023/215384) with claims directed to therapeutic methods for treating SMA deriving from the phase 2 and phase 3 clinical trials of apitegromab. If granted, patents from this family would expire in 2043. Both of these families are in early stages of prosecution. A further PCT application was filed in 2025 based on clinical data from the phase 2 and 3 trials of apitegromab, PCT/US2025/049463, which has not yet published. If granted, patents from this family would expire in 2045.

A further PCT application PCT/US2022/034588 (published as WO2022/271867) was filed with claims directed to combination/add-on therapy for treating metabolic disorders. Patents that issue from this PCT are projected to expire in 2042. A European application granted as EP 4358995 B1 in December 2025. The granted claims are directed to compositions comprising a myostatin-selective inhibitor and a GLP-1 analog, use for treating a metabolic disorder, such as obesity. EP 4358995 B1 is the subject of ongoing opposition proceedings before the EPO. Additionally, PCT application PCT/US2025/030263 (published as WO 2025/245160) was filed with claims directed to a myostatin-selective inhibitor for use in treating metabolic disorders, such as obesity. Patents that issue from this PCT are projected to expire in 2045.

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PCT/US2025/060766 (not yet published), along with one direct national filing in Taiwan, is directed to therapies for muscular dystrophies. If granted, patents deriving from this PCT are projected to expire in 2045.

Finally, two other myostatin-related patent families have been filed and are in the priority year.

c. TGF β 1 Activation Inhibitors

In addition to the patent families discussed above in the “Intellectual Property-Platform” section that generically cover certain aspects of the TGFβ1 program, fifteen patent families have been filed to date, covering various specific aspects of our TGFβ1 programs.

Isoform-specific inhibitors of TGFβ1 which confer improved safety profile and related methods are described in PCT/US2017/021972 (published as WO 2017/156500). A U.S. patent (11,643,459) issued in May 2023, with claims directed to methods for identifying TGFβ1-specific inhibitors. A European patent granted in May of 2023 as EP3365368, with claims to the use of isoform-selective and context-independent anti-TGFβ1 antibodies, defined by CDR sequences or by cross-competition, in the treatment of cancer or myelofibrosis. EP3365368 is the subject of ongoing opposition proceedings before the EPO. Additional patents in this family have been granted in other jurisdictions. For example, a Japanese patent (JP Patent No. 7794630) granted in December 2025 with claims to the use of an isoform-selective anti-pro/latent TGFβ1 antibody in combination with an anti-PD1 or anti-PD-L1 antibody for reducing the growth of cancer or a solid tumor. This family is projected to expire in March 2037.

Among TGFβ1 inhibitors, one of our context-independent antibodies is separately claimed and related preclinical data are described in PCT/US2018/012601 (published as WO 2018/129329). Patents deriving from this PCT are projected to expire in January 2038. Japanese patent (JP Patent No. 7157744) issued in October 2022 with claims covering certain isoform-selective, context-independent antibodies and their use in the treatment of fibrotic diseases. Additional patents in this family have also been granted in other jurisdictions.

In addition, high-affinity, isoform-selective TGFβ1 inhibitors are disclosed in PCT/2019/041373 (published as WO 2020/014460, and patents have issued in March of 2025 in the U.S. (U.S. Pat. No. 12,252,531), April 2024 in Columbia, June 2024 in the Gulf Cooperation Council, and August of 2024 in Japan, March of 2025 in Eurasia, September of 2025 in Canada, and November of 2025 in Korea). Patents of this family are projected to expire in 2039. Separately, direct national/regional applications covering related subject matter have been filed, in the U.S., Europe and Hong Kong, and are projected to expire in 2039. Two U.S. patents issued in September of 2021 as U.S. 11,130,803 and in October of 2024 as U.S. 12,122,823, with claims which cover the SRK-181 clinical candidate and pharmaceutical compositions thereof; and a European patent issued in November of 2021 as EP3677278; and the corresponding Hong Kong patent issued in June of 2022, with claims that cover the SRK-181 clinical candidate, pharmaceutical compositions, use for treating cancer and myelofibrosis, and methods for manufacturing. Additionally, PCT/US2021/012969 (published as WO 2021/142448) discloses data related to biomarkers for the high-affinity, isoform-selective TGFβ1 inhibitors. If granted, patents deriving from this PCT application are projected to expire in 2041. Additional biomarkers are disclosed in PCT/US2022/022063 (published as WO2022/204581). If granted, patents deriving from this PCT applications would expire in 2042. Another PCT application, PCT/US2024/018970 (published as WO 2024/187051) discloses methods of treating certain cancers and identification of patient populations using biomarkers. If granted, patents derived from this PCT are projected to expire in 2044. Further, PCT/US2025/028935 (published as WO 2025/240343) discloses methods of treating cancer comprising a solid tumor, such as renal cell carcinoma (RCC) as well as biomarkers. If granted, patents derived from this PCT are projected to expire in 2045. Antibodies claimed in these patent families protect our SRK-181 clinical candidate.

Separately, other improved isoform-selective, context-independent inhibitors of TGFβ1 are disclosed in PCT/US2019/041390 (published as WO 2020/014473). Patents granted in this family are projected to expire in 2039. PCT/US2021/12930 (published as WO 2021/142427) is directed to optimized isoform-selective, context-independent inhibitors of TGFβ1. Patents granted in this family are projected to expire in 2041.

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LTBP complex-specific inhibitors of TGFβ1 are described in three patent families: PCT/US2018/44216 (published as WO 2019/023661), patents derived from which are expected to expire in July of 2038; and PCT/US2020/15915 (published as WO2020/160291), which is expected to expire in 2040; PCT/US2022/73740 (published as WO 2023/288277), patents derived from which are expected to expire in 2042. One U.S. patent has issued in the first family (U.S. Pat. 12,358.992), and three U.S. patents (U.S. Pat. Nos. 11,214,614, 11,365,245 and 12,173,059) and six foreign patents (Columbia, China, Chile, Eurasia, Japan, and Hong Kong) have been issued in the second patent family with claims directed to antibodies and pharmaceutical compositions.

LRRC33-specific inhibitors are described in a further patent family: PCT/US2018/031759 (published as WO 2018/208888) which is expected to expire in May of 2038. EP3621694 granted in July 2023, with claims directed to therapeutic use of LRRC33 inhibitors for the treatment of various indications. Additional patents in this family have also granted in Canada (CA 3099260) and Australia (AU 2018266784).

PCT/US2017/042162 (published as WO 2018/013939) was exclusively licensed to Janssen but, as explained below, the license agreement was terminated in July 2022. Scholar Rock is now in control of prosecution. This patent family covers antibodies that specifically inhibit GARP-associated TGFβ, and patents granted in this family are projected to expire in July 2037. U.S. Patent No. 12,281,159 issued in April 2025 with claims directed to antibodies and antigen-binding fragments that specifically bind to human proTGFβ1 in a complex with human GARP, a process for their production and related products, compositions and uses. A Japanese patent (JP Patent No. 7128801) issued in August 2022 with claims directed to antibodies and antigen-binding fragments which specifically bind human pro-TGFβ1-GARP complex, a process for their production and related compositions. Additional patents have also granted in other jurisdictions including in Australia (AU 2017294772).

d. RGMc-Selective Inhibitors and Other Selective Agonists

PCT/US2019/057687 (published as WO2020/086736) is directed to RGMc-selective inhibitors and patents derived from this PCT are projected to expire in 2039. U.S Patent No. 12,297,262 issued in May 2025 with claims that cover the SRK-256 clinical candidate, pharmaceutical compositions and uses for treating iron disorders, such as anemia, including anemia of chronic disease and anemia in subjects diagnosed with myelofibrosis or another cancer. A Japanese patent (JP Patent No. 7621939) with claims covering similar subject-matter granted in January 2025, as did a Chinese patent (CN Patent No. 113164766) issued in February 2025. Additional patents have also been granted in other jurisdictions. A U.S. patent issued as US 12,297,262 in May 2025. The granted claims are directed to an RGMc antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof comprising one of five different sets of complementary determining regions sequences and uses thereof.

A second family has been filed directed to an undisclosed neuromuscular target.

e. Intellectual Property Protection

We cannot predict whether the patent applications we pursue will issue as patents in any particular jurisdiction or whether the claims of any issued patents will provide any proprietary protection from competitors. Even if our pending patent applications are granted as issued patents, those patents, as well as any patents we license from third parties, may be challenged, circumvented or invalidated by third parties. As mentioned above, four granted patents, EP2981822, EP3365368, EP3368069 and EP4358995 are the subject of ongoing opposition proceedings before the EPO, as of December 31, 2025. While there are no contested proceedings or third-party claims relating to any of the other patents described above, as of that date, we cannot provide any assurances that we will not have such proceedings or third-party claims at a later date.

Additionally, the Unitary Patent/Unified Patent Court system in Europe became fully operational in June 2023. As such, European patents which are subject to the jurisdiction of the Unified Patent Court (“UPC”) face limited precedent for the court, increasing the uncertainty of any litigation.

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The term of individual patents depends upon the legal term of the patents in the countries in which they are obtained. In most countries in which we file, the patent term is 20 years from the earliest date of filing a non-provisional patent application. In the U.S., the patent term of a patent that covers an FDA-approved drug or biologic may also be eligible for patent term extension, which permits patent term restoration as compensation for the patent term lost during FDA regulatory review process. The Hatch-Waxman Amendments permit a patent term extension of up to five years beyond the expiration of the patent. The length of the patent term extension is related to the length of time the drug or biologic is under regulatory review. Patent term extension cannot extend the remaining term of a patent beyond a total of 14 years from the date of product approval and only one patent applicable to an approved drug or biologic may be extended. Similar provisions are available in Europe and other foreign jurisdictions to extend the term of a patent that covers an approved drug or biologic or provide an additional period of protection for the approved pharmaceutical product following expiry of the patent. In the future, if our products receive FDA approval, we expect to apply for patent term extensions on patents covering those products. We plan to seek patent term extensions to any of our issued patents in any jurisdiction where these are available, however there is no guarantee that the applicable authorities, including the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office in the U.S. and the national patent offices in Europe, will agree with our assessment of whether such extensions should be granted, and if granted, the length of such extensions.

In addition to our reliance on patent protection for our inventions, product candidates and research programs, we also rely on trade secret protection for our confidential and proprietary information. For example, certain elements of our proprietary platform may be based on unpatented trade secrets that are not publicly disclosed. Although we take steps to protect our proprietary information and trade secrets, including through contractual means with our employees and consultants, third parties may independently develop substantially equivalent proprietary information and techniques or otherwise gain access to our trade secrets or disclose our technology. Thus, we may not be able to meaningfully protect our trade secrets. It is our policy to require our employees, consultants, outside scientific collaborators, sponsored researchers and other advisors to execute confidentiality agreements upon the commencement of employment or consulting relationships with us. These agreements provide that all confidential information concerning our business or financial affairs developed or made known to the individual or entity during the course of the party's relationship with us is to be kept confidential and not disclosed to third parties except in specific circumstances. In the case of employees, the agreements provide that all inventions conceived by the individual, and which are related to our current or planned business or research and development or made during normal working hours, on our premises or using our equipment or proprietary information, are our exclusive property. In addition, we take other appropriate precautions, such as physical and technological security measures, to guard against misappropriation of our proprietary technology by third parties. We have also adopted policies and conduct training that provides guidance on our expectations, and our advice for best practices, in protecting our trade secrets.

| VIII. | Manufacturing

We do not own or operate facilities for clinical drug manufacturing, storage, distribution or quality testing. Currently, all of our clinical manufacturing is outsourced to third-party manufacturers. Certain third party manufacturers may require us to enter in manufacturing agreements with them that include substantial milestone payments and royalties. As our development programs expand and we build new process efficiencies, we expect to continually evaluate our strategy of utilizing third party manufacturers with the objective of satisfying demand for our registration trials and, if approved, the manufacture, sale and distribution of commercial products.

IX.Antibody Discovery

We have internal antibody display and discovery capabilities; however, at times we may continue to rely on third parties to conduct antibody discovery and optimization services for us based on criteria and specifications provided by us. Certain antibody discovery and optimization vendors require us to enter into a license with them for the right to use antibodies discovered by them in human use or for commercial purposes. Such license could include substantial milestone payments and royalties to the extent we choose to use an antibody discovered by such vendor. On March 12, 2019, we exercised an option to receive such a license from Adimab pursuant to our Adimab Agreement. Please see the description above in “License Agreements – Adimab Agreement” for more details on the terms of this agreement.

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X. Competition

The biotechnology and pharmaceutical industries are characterized by rapid evolution of technologies, fierce competition, and strong defense of intellectual property. Although we believe that our product candidates, discovery programs, technology, knowledge, experience and scientific resources provide us with competitive advantages, we face competition from major pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies, academic institutions, governmental agencies and public and private research institutions, among others.

Many of the companies against which we may compete have significantly greater financial resources and expertise than we do in research and development, manufacturing, and commercialization of approved products. These competitors compete with us in recruiting and retaining qualified scientific and management personnel and may compete with us in establishing clinical trial sites and patient recruitment for clinical trials.

The availability of reimbursement from government and other third-party payors will also significantly affect the pricing and competitiveness of our products. Our competitors also may obtain FDA or other regulatory approval for their products more rapidly than we may obtain approval for ours, which could result in our competitors establishing a strong market position before we are able to enter the market.

a. Competition for Apitegromab

In the SMA market, there are three approved SMN targeted treatments and no approved muscle-targeted treatments for SMA to date. The SMA drug development pipeline reflects a focus on addressing the significant remaining unmet needs of individuals living with SMA as well as the life cycle management of the existing approved SMN targeted treatments. To address the remaining unmet needs to further improve and sustain muscle function by contributing to the impact on the overall disease progression in SMA, we are pioneering a novel approach by developing the first muscle-targeted treatment in SMA.

We are developing apitegromab, an investigational fully human monoclonal antibody designed to inhibit myostatin activation by selectively binding the pro- and latent forms of myostatin in the skeletal muscle, for the treatment of patients with SMA. If apitegromab receives marketing approval, we may face competition from other companies conducting clinical trials to develop anti-myostatin molecules or other treatments for SMA, including Roche, Biogen, and NMD Pharma. Moreover, we may also compete with smaller or earlier-stage companies, and other research institutions that have developed, are developing or may be developing current and future anti-myostatin inhibitors or other treatments for SMA.

In addition, Novartis, Roche and Biogen are in late-stage development of alternate formulations or dosing regimen of their respective approved SMN treatments, including an additional formulation of Novartis’ onasemnogene abeparvovec, an oral tablet for Roche’s risdiplam, as well as a high dose formulation of Biogen’s antisense oligonucleotide (ASO), nusinersen. Apitegromab is being developed with the intention to be used in individuals living with SMA who are currently on an approved SMN targeted treatment.

b. Competition for SRK-181

Our competitors for SRK-181 may include other companies developing inhibitors of the TGFβ signaling pathway, such as antifibrotic therapies and cancer immunotherapies to be used in combination with CPI therapy.

For the latter, many companies, including AbbVie Inc, Roche, Bicara Therapeutics, Novartis, Bristol Myers Squibb (acquired Forbius) and Merck KGaA, Merck (acquired Tilos Therapeutics) are developing therapies for cancer immunotherapy in combination with CPI therapy, that are intended to work, at least in part, through inhibition of the TGFβ signaling pathway.

Our competitors may also include companies that are or will be developing therapies for the same therapeutic areas that we are targeting within our early pipeline, including other neuromuscular disorders, cancer, fibrosis and iron-restricted anemia.

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XI. Government Regulation

Government authorities in the U.S. at the federal, state and local level and in other countries regulate, among other things, the research, development, testing, manufacture, quality control, approval, labeling, packaging, storage, record-keeping, promotion, advertising, distribution, post-approval monitoring and reporting, marketing and export and import of drug and biological products, such as apitegromab, SRK-181, SRK-439 and any future product candidates. Generally, before a new drug or biologic can be marketed, considerable data demonstrating its quality, safety and efficacy must be obtained, organized into a format specific for each regulatory authority, submitted for review and approved by the regulatory authority.

a. U.S. Biological Product Development

In the U.S., the FDA regulates drugs under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (“FDCA”), and its implementing regulations and biologics under the FDCA, the Public Health Service Act (“PHSA”), and their implementing regulations. Both drugs and biologics also are subject to other federal, state and local statutes and regulations. The process of obtaining regulatory approvals and the subsequent compliance with appropriate federal, state and local statutes and regulations requires the expenditure of substantial time and financial resources. Failure to comply with the applicable U.S. requirements at any time during the product development process, approval process or post-market may subject an applicant to administrative or judicial sanctions. These sanctions could include, among other actions, the FDA’s refusal to approve pending applications, withdrawal of an approval, a clinical hold, untitled or warning letters, product recalls or market withdrawals, product seizures, total or partial suspension of production or distribution, injunctions, fines, refusals of government contracts, restitution, disgorgement and civil or criminal penalties. Any agency or judicial enforcement action could have a material adverse effect on us.

Apitegromab, SRK-181, and any future product candidates regulated as biologics must be approved by the FDA through a BLA process before they may be legally marketed in the U.S. The process generally involves the following:

| ● | Completion of extensive preclinical studies in accordance with applicable regulations, including studies conducted in accordance with good laboratory practice (“GLP”) requirements;

| ● | Manufacture of drug substance and drug product in accordance with applicable regulations, including manufacturing activities performed in accordance with current good manufacturing practice (“cGMP”) requirements;

| ● | Submission to the FDA of an IND application, which must become effective before human clinical trials may begin;

| ● | Approval by an institutional review board (“IRB”) or independent ethics committee at each clinical trial site before each trial may be initiated;

| ● | Performance of adequate and well-controlled human clinical trials in accordance with applicable IND regulations, good clinical practice (“GCP”) requirements and other clinical trial related regulations to establish the safety and efficacy of the investigational product for each proposed indication;

| ● | Submission of a BLA to the FDA;

| ● | A determination by the FDA within 60 days of its receipt of a BLA to accept the filing for review;

| ● | Satisfactory completion of an FDA pre-approval inspection of the manufacturing facility or facilities where the biologic will be produced to assess compliance with cGMP requirements to assure that the facilities, methods and controls are adequate to preserve the biologic’s identity, strength, quality and purity;

| ● | Potential FDA inspection of Scholar Rock and of the clinical trial sites that generated the data in support of the BLA; and

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| ● | FDA review and approval of the BLA, including consideration of the views of any FDA advisory committee, prior to any commercial marketing or sale of the biologic in the U.S.

i. Preclinical Studies and IND

Preclinical studies include laboratory evaluation of product chemistry and formulation, as well as in vitro and animal studies to assess the potential for adverse events and in some cases to establish a rationale for therapeutic use. The conduct of preclinical studies is subject to federal regulations and requirements, including GLP regulations for safety/toxicology studies.

An IND sponsor must submit the results of the preclinical tests, together with manufacturing information, analytical data, any available clinical data or literature and plans for clinical studies, among other things, to the FDA as part of an IND. An IND is a request for authorization from the FDA to administer an investigational product to humans, and must become effective before human clinical trials may begin. Some long-term preclinical testing may continue after the IND is submitted. An IND automatically becomes effective 30 days after receipt by the FDA, unless before that time, the FDA raises concerns or questions related to one or more proposed clinical trials and places the trial on clinical hold. In such a case, the IND sponsor and the FDA must resolve any outstanding concerns before the clinical trial can begin. As a result, submission of an IND may not result in the FDA allowing clinical trials to commence.

ii. Clinical Trials

The clinical stage of development involves the administration of the investigational product to healthy volunteers or patients under the supervision of qualified investigators, generally physicians not employed by or under the trial sponsor’s control, in accordance with GCP requirements, which include the requirement that all patients provide their informed consent for their participation in any clinical trial. Clinical trials are conducted under protocols detailing, among other things, the objectives of the clinical trial, dosing procedures, subject selection and exclusion criteria and the parameters to be used to monitor subject safety and assess efficacy. Each protocol, and any subsequent amendments to the protocol, must be submitted to the FDA as part of the IND. Furthermore, each clinical trial must be reviewed and approved by an IRB for each institution at which the clinical trial will be conducted to ensure that the risks to individuals participating in the clinical trials are minimized and are reasonable in relation to anticipated benefits. The IRB also approves the informed consent form that must be provided to each clinical trial subject or his or her legal representative, and must monitor the clinical trial until completed. There also are requirements governing the reporting of ongoing clinical trials and completed clinical trial results to public registries.

A sponsor who wishes to conduct a clinical trial outside of the U.S. may, but need not, obtain FDA authorization to conduct the clinical trial under an IND. If a foreign clinical trial is not conducted under an IND, the sponsor may submit data from the clinical trial to the FDA in support of a BLA. The FDA will accept a well-designed and well conducted foreign clinical study not conducted under an IND if the study was conducted in accordance with GCP requirements, and the FDA is able to validate the data through an onsite inspection if deemed necessary.

Clinical trials generally are conducted in three sequential phases, known as Phase 1, Phase 2 and Phase 3, and may be combined or overlap.

| ● | Phase 1 clinical trials generally involve a small number of healthy volunteers or disease affected patients who are initially exposed to a single dose and then multiple doses of the product candidate. The primary purpose of these clinical trials is to assess the metabolism, pharmacologic action, side effect tolerability and safety of the product candidate.

| ● | Phase 2 clinical trials generally involve studies in disease affected patients to evaluate proof-of-concept and/or determine the dosing regimen(s) for subsequent investigations. At the same time, safety and further PK and PD information is collected, possible adverse effects and safety risks are identified and a preliminary evaluation of efficacy is conducted.

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| ● | Phase 3 clinical trials generally involve a large number of patients at multiple sites and are designed to provide the data necessary to demonstrate the effectiveness of the product for its intended use, its safety in use and to establish the overall benefit/risk relationship of the product and provide an adequate basis for product labeling.

Post-approval trials, sometimes referred to as Phase 4 clinical trials, may be conducted after initial marketing approval. These trials are used to gain additional experience from the treatment of patients in the intended therapeutic indication. In certain instances, the FDA may mandate the performance of Phase 4 clinical trials as a condition of approval of a BLA.

Progress reports detailing the results of the clinical trials, among other information, must be submitted at least annually to the FDA and written IND safety reports must be submitted to the FDA and the investigators for suspected unexpected serious adverse reactions (“SUSARs”), findings from other studies or animal or in vitro testing that suggest a significant risk for human subjects and any clinically important increase in the rate of a serious suspected adverse reaction over that listed in the protocol or investigator brochure.

The FDA or the sponsor may suspend or terminate a clinical trial at any time on various grounds, including a finding that the patients are being exposed to an unacceptable health risk. Similarly, an IRB can suspend or terminate approval of a clinical trial at its institution if the clinical trial is not being conducted in accordance with the IRB’s requirements or if the drug or biologic has been associated with unexpected serious harm to patients. Additionally, some clinical trials are overseen by an independent group of qualified experts organized by the clinical trial sponsor, known as a data safety monitoring board (“DSMB”) or committee. The DSMB provides recommendations for whether a trial may move forward at designated check points based on access to certain data from the trial. Concurrent with clinical trials, companies usually complete additional animal studies and also must develop additional information about the chemistry and physical characteristics of the drug or biologic as well as finalize a process for manufacturing the product in commercial quantities in accordance with cGMP requirements. The manufacturing process must be capable of consistently producing quality batches of the product and, among other things, companies must develop methods for testing the identity, strength, quality and purity of the final product. Additionally, appropriate packaging must be selected and tested and stability studies must be conducted to demonstrate that the product candidates do not undergo unacceptable deterioration over their shelf life.

iii. FDA Review Process

Following completion of the clinical trials, data are analyzed to assess whether the investigational product is safe and effective for the proposed indicated use or uses. Chemistry, manufacturing and controls ("CMC") information, preclinical studies and clinical trials results, and proposed labeling are submitted to the FDA as part of the BLA. The BLA is a request for approval to market the biologic for one or more specified indications and must contain proof of safety, purity and potency for a biologic. The application may include both negative and ambiguous results of preclinical studies and clinical trials, as well as positive findings. Data may come from company sponsored clinical trials intended to test the safety and efficacy of a product’s use or from a number of alternative sources, including studies initiated by investigators. To support marketing approval, the data submitted must be sufficient in quality and quantity to establish the safety and efficacy of the investigational product to the satisfaction of the FDA. FDA approval of a BLA must be obtained before a biologic may be marketed in the U.S.

Under the Prescription Drug User Fee Act (“PDUFA”) as amended, each BLA must be accompanied by a user fee. The FDA adjusts the PDUFA user fees on an annual basis. Fee waivers or reductions are available in certain circumstances, including a waiver of the application fee for the first application filed by a small business. Additionally, no user fees are assessed on BLAs for products designated as orphan drugs, unless the product also includes a non-orphan indication.

The FDA reviews all submitted BLAs before it accepts them for filing, and may request additional information rather than accepting the BLA for filing. The FDA must make a decision on accepting a BLA for filing within 60 days of receipt, and such decision could include a refusal to file (“RTF”) by the FDA. Once the submission is accepted for filing, the FDA begins an in-depth review of the BLA. Under the goals and policies agreed to by the FDA under PDUFA, the FDA has 10 months, from the filing date, in which to complete its initial review of an original BLA and respond to the applicant, and six months from the filing date of an original BLA designated for priority review. The FDA does not

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always meet its PDUFA goal dates for standard and priority BLAs, and the review process is often extended by FDA requests for additional information or clarification.

Before approving a BLA, the FDA will conduct a preapproval inspection of the manufacturing facilities for the new product to determine whether they comply with cGMP requirements. The FDA will not approve the product unless it determines that the manufacturing processes and facilities are in compliance with cGMP requirements and adequate to assure consistent production of the product within required specifications. The FDA also may audit data from clinical trials to ensure compliance with GCP requirements. Additionally, the FDA may refer applications for novel products or products which present difficult questions of safety or efficacy to an advisory committee, typically a panel that includes clinicians and other experts, for review, evaluation and a recommendation as to whether the application should be approved and under what conditions, if any. The FDA is not bound by recommendations of an advisory committee, but it considers such recommendations when making decisions on approval. The FDA likely will reanalyze the clinical trial data, which could result in extensive discussions between the FDA and the applicant during the review process. After the FDA evaluates a BLA, it will issue an Approval Letter or a Complete Response Letter. An Approval Letter authorizes commercial marketing of the biologic with specific prescribing information for specific indications. The Approval Letter may also include post-marketing requirements or commitments, such as the conduct of additional clinical trials or CMC studies. A Complete Response Letter indicates that the review cycle of the application is complete and the application will not be approved in its present form. A Complete Response Letter usually describes all of the specific deficiencies in the BLA identified by the FDA. The Complete Response Letter may require additional clinical data, additional pivotal Phase 3 clinical trial(s) and/or other significant and time consuming requirements related to clinical trials, preclinical studies or manufacturing. If a Complete Response Letter is issued, the applicant may either resubmit the BLA, addressing all of the deficiencies identified in the letter, or withdraw the application. Even if such data and information are submitted, the FDA may decide that the BLA does not satisfy the criteria for approval. Data obtained from clinical trials are not always conclusive and the FDA may interpret data differently than we interpret the same data.

iv. Orphan Drug Designation

Under the Orphan Drug Act, the FDA may grant orphan designation to a drug or biological product intended to treat a rare disease or condition, which is generally a disease or condition that affects fewer than 200,000 individuals in the U.S., or more than 200,000 individuals in the U.S. and for which there is no reasonable expectation that the cost of developing and making the product available in the U.S. for this type of disease or condition will be recovered from sales of the product.

After the FDA grants Orphan Drug designation, the identity of the therapeutic agent and its potential orphan use are disclosed publicly by the FDA. Orphan Drug designation does not convey any advantage in or shorten the duration of the regulatory review and approval process.

If a product that has orphan designation subsequently receives the first FDA approval for the disease or condition for which it has such designation, the product is entitled to orphan drug exclusivity, which means that the FDA may not approve any other applications to market the same drug for the same indication for seven years from the date of such approval, except in limited circumstances, such as a showing of clinical superiority to the product with orphan exclusivity by means of greater effectiveness, greater safety or providing a major contribution to patient care or in instances of drug supply issues. Competitors, however, may receive approval of either a different product for the same indication or the same product for a different indication but that could be used off-label in the orphan indication. Orphan drug exclusivity also could block the approval of one of our products for seven years if a competitor obtains approval before we do for the same product, as defined by the FDA, for the same indication we are seeking approval, or if our product is determined to be contained within the scope of the competitor’s product for the same indication or disease. If a product designated as an orphan drug receives marketing approval for an indication broader than that which is designated, it may not be entitled to orphan drug exclusivity. Orphan drug status in the European Union (“EU”) has similar, but not identical, requirements and benefits.

v. Rare Pediatric Disease Designation

The FDA grants Rare Pediatric Disease designation for serious and life-threatening diseases that primarily affect children ages 18 years or younger and fewer than 200,000 individuals in the U.S. Eligibility for a priority review

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voucher may be issued upon approval of a BLA or New Drug Application for therapies developed to treat such rare pediatric diseases. Priority review vouchers may be redeemed to obtain priority review for any subsequent marketing application or be sold or transferred. Under current statutory provisions, the FDA may not award any rare pediatric disease priority review vouchers after September 30, 2029, although FDA’s authority to do so may be extended by Congress in the future.

vi. Expedited Development and Review Programs

The FDA has a Fast Track program that is intended to expedite or facilitate the process for reviewing new drugs and biologics that meet certain criteria. Specifically, new drugs and biologics are eligible for Fast Track designation if they are intended to treat a serious or life-threatening condition and preclinical or clinical data demonstrate the potential to address unmet medical needs for the condition. Fast Track designation applies to both the product and the specific indication for which it is being studied. The sponsor can request the FDA to designate the product for Fast Track status any time before receiving BLA approval, but ideally no later than the pre-BLA meeting. Any product submitted to the FDA for marketing, including under a Fast Track program, may be eligible for other types of FDA programs intended to expedite development and review, such as priority review and accelerated approval. Any product is eligible for priority review if it treats a serious or life-threatening condition and, if approved, would provide a significant improvement in safety and effectiveness compared to available therapies. The FDA will attempt to direct additional resources to the evaluation of an application for a new drug or biologic designated for priority review in an effort to facilitate the review.

A product may also be eligible for accelerated approval, if it treats a serious or life-threatening condition and generally provides a meaningful advantage over available therapies. Accelerated approval may also be granted in the case that there are no alternative treatments available. In addition, it must demonstrate an effect on a surrogate endpoint that is reasonably likely to predict clinical benefit or on a clinical endpoint that can be measured earlier than irreversible morbidity or mortality (“IMM”), that is reasonably likely to predict an effect on IMM or other clinical benefit. As a condition of approval, the FDA may require that a sponsor of a drug or biologic receiving accelerated approval perform adequate and well-controlled post-marketing clinical trials with due diligence and, under the Food and Drug Omnibus Reform Act of 2022 (“FDORA”), the FDA is now permitted to require that such trials be underway prior to approval or within a specific time period after, the date accelerated approval is granted. In addition, for products being considered for accelerated approval, the FDA currently requires, unless otherwise informed by the agency, that all advertising and promotional materials intended for dissemination or publication within 120 days of marketing approval be submitted to the agency for review during the pre-approval review period. If the FDA concludes that a drug or biologic shown to be effective can be safely used only if distribution or use is restricted, it will require such post-marketing restrictions, as it deems necessary to assure safe use of the product. Under FDORA, the FDA has increased authority for expedited procedures to withdraw approval of a product or indication approved under accelerated approval if, for example, the confirmatory trial fails to verify the predicted clinical benefit of the product.

Additionally, a drug or biologic may be eligible for designation as a breakthrough therapy if the product is intended, alone or in combination with one or more other drugs or biologics, to treat a serious or life-threatening condition and preliminary clinical evidence indicates that the product may demonstrate substantial improvement over currently approved therapies on one or more clinically significant endpoints. The benefits of breakthrough therapy designation include the same benefits as Fast Track designation, plus intensive guidance from the FDA to ensure an efficient drug development program.

Fast Track designation, priority review, accelerated approval and breakthrough therapy designation do not change the standards for approval, but may expedite the development or approval process.

vii. Pediatric Information

Under the Pediatric Research Equity Act (“PREA”), as amended, a BLA or supplement to a BLA must contain data to assess the safety and efficacy of the drug for the claimed indications in all relevant pediatric subpopulations and to support dosing and administration for each pediatric subpopulation for which the product is safe and effective. The FDA may grant deferrals for submission of pediatric data or full or partial waivers. Unless otherwise required by regulation, PREA does not apply to any biological product for an indication for which orphan designation has been granted. A sponsor who is planning to submit a marketing application for a drug that includes a new active ingredient, new indication, new dosage form, new dosing regimen or new route of administration submits an initial Pediatric Study Plan

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(“PSP”) within 60 days of an end-of-Phase 2 meeting or, if there is no such meeting, as early as practicable before the initiation of the Phase 3 or Phase 2/3 study. The initial PSP must include an outline of the pediatric study or studies that the sponsor plans to conduct, including study objectives and design, age groups, relevant endpoints and statistical approach, or a justification for not including such detailed information, and any request for a deferral of pediatric assessments or a full or partial waiver of the requirement to provide data from pediatric studies along with supporting information. The FDA and the sponsor must reach an agreement on the PSP. A sponsor can submit amendments to an agreed-upon initial PSP at any time if changes to the pediatric plan need to be considered based on data collected from preclinical studies, early phase clinical trials and/or other clinical development programs.

viii. Post-marketing Requirements

Following approval of a new product, the manufacturer and the approved product are subject to continuing regulation by the FDA, including, among other things, monitoring and record-keeping activities, reporting of adverse experiences, complying with promotion and advertising requirements, which include restrictions on promoting products for unapproved uses or patient populations (known as “off-label use”) and limitations on industry-sponsored scientific and educational activities. Although physicians may prescribe legally available products for off-label uses, manufacturers may not market or promote such uses. Prescription drug and biologic promotional materials must be submitted to the FDA in conjunction with their first use. Further, if there are any modifications to the drug or biologic, including changes in indications, labeling or manufacturing processes or facilities, the applicant may be required to submit and obtain FDA approval of a new BLA or BLA supplement, which may require the development of additional data or preclinical studies and clinical trials.

The FDA may also place other conditions on approvals including the requirement for a Risk Evaluation and Mitigation Strategy (“REMS”) to assure the safe use of the product. If the FDA concludes a REMS is needed, the sponsor of the BLA must submit a proposed REMS. The FDA will not approve the BLA without an approved REMS, if required. A REMS could include medication guides, physician communication plans or elements to assure safe use, such as restricted distribution methods, patient registries and other risk minimization tools. Any of these limitations on approval or marketing could restrict the commercial promotion, distribution, prescription or dispensing of products. Newly discovered or developed safety or effectiveness data may require changes to a drug’s approved labeling, including the addition of new warnings and contraindications, and also may require the implementation of other risk management measures, including a REMS or the conduct of post-marketing studies to assess a newly discovered safety issue. Product approvals may be withdrawn for non-compliance with regulatory standards or if problems occur following initial marketing.

FDA regulations require that products be manufactured in specific approved facilities and in accordance with cGMP regulations. These manufacturers must comply with cGMP regulations that require, among other things, quality control and quality assurance, the maintenance of records and documentation and the obligation to investigate and correct any deviations from cGMP. Manufacturers and other entities involved in the manufacture and distribution of approved drugs or biologics are required to register their establishments with the FDA and certain state agencies, and are subject to periodic unannounced inspections by the FDA and certain state agencies for compliance with cGMP requirements and other laws, as well as applicable tracking and tracing requirements. Accordingly, manufacturers must continue to expend time, money and effort in the area of production and quality control to maintain cGMP compliance. The discovery of violative conditions, including failure to conform to cGMP regulations, could result in enforcement actions, and the discovery of problems with a product after approval may result in restrictions on a product, manufacturer or holder of an approved BLA, including recall.

ix. Other Regulatory Matters

Manufacturing, sales, promotion and other activities following product approval are also subject to regulation by numerous regulatory authorities in the U.S. in addition to the FDA, including the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services (“CMS”), other divisions of the Department of Health and Human Services (“HHS”), the Department of Justice, the Consumer Product Safety Commission, the Federal Trade Commission, the Occupational Safety & Health Administration, the Environmental Protection Agency and state and local governments.

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x. Other Healthcare and Privacy Laws

Healthcare providers, physicians, and third-party payors will play a primary role in the recommendation and prescription of any products for which we obtain marketing approval. Our future arrangements with third-party payors, healthcare providers and physicians may expose us to broadly applicable fraud and abuse and other healthcare laws and regulations that may constrain the business or financial arrangements and relationships through which we market, sell and distribute any drugs for which we obtain marketing approval. In particular, the research of our product candidates, as well as the promotion, sales and marketing of healthcare items and services, as well as certain business arrangements in the healthcare industry, are subject to extensive laws designed to prevent fraud, kickbacks, self-dealing and other abusive practices. These laws and regulations may restrict or prohibit a wide range of pricing, discounting, marketing and promotion, structuring and commission(s), certain customer incentive programs and other business arrangements generally. Activities subject to these laws also involve the improper use of information obtained in the course of patient recruitment for clinical trials. In the U.S., these laws include, without limitation, state and federal anti-kickback, false claims, physician transparency, and patient data privacy and security laws and regulations, including but not limited to those described below.

| ● | The Anti-Kickback Statute, which makes it illegal for among other things, any person or entity, including a prescription drug manufacturer (or a party acting on its behalf), to knowingly and willfully solicit, receive, offer or pay any remuneration, directly or indirectly, overtly or covertly, in cash or in kind, that is intended to induce or reward referrals, including the purchase, recommendation, order or prescription of a particular drug, for which payment may be made under a federal healthcare program, such as Medicare or Medicaid. Violations of this law are punishable by individual imprisonment, criminal fines, administrative civil money penalties and exclusion from participation in federal healthcare programs. In addition, a person or entity does not need to have actual knowledge of the statute or specific intent to violate it to have committed a violation.

| ● | The federal civil and criminal false claims laws, including the False Claims Act (“FCA”), which prohibits individuals or entities (including prescription drug manufacturers) from knowingly presenting, or causing to be presented false or fraudulent claims for payment by a federal healthcare program or making a false statement or record material to payment of a false claim or avoiding, decreasing or concealing an obligation to pay money to the federal government. The government may deem manufacturers to have “caused” the submission of false or fraudulent claims by, for example, providing inaccurate billing or coding information to customers or promoting a product off label. Claims which include items or services resulting from a violation of the Anti-Kickback Statute are false or fraudulent claims for purposes of the FCA. Our future marketing and activities relating to the reporting of wholesaler or estimated retail prices for our products, the reporting of prices used to calculate Medicaid rebate information and other information affecting federal, state and third-party reimbursement for our products, and the sale and marketing of our product and any future product candidates, are subject to scrutiny under this these laws.

| ● | The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (“HIPAA”), which created additional federal criminal statutes that prohibit among other things, knowingly and willfully executing a scheme, or attempting to execute a scheme, to defraud any healthcare benefit program, including private payors, or knowingly and willfully falsifying, concealing or covering up a material fact or making any materially false statements in connection with the delivery of or payment for healthcare benefits, items or services. Similar to the federal Anti-Kickback Statute, a person or entity does not need to have actual knowledge of the statute or specific intent to violate it in order to have committed a violation.

| ● | HIPAA, as amended by the Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health Act of 2009 (“HITECH”), and their respective implementing regulations, which impose, among other things, specified requirements on covered entities, which include certain healthcare providers, health plans and healthcare clearinghouses, and their business associates, which include individuals or entities that perform services for covered entities involving the creation, use, maintenance or disclosure of, individually identifiable health information, relating to the privacy and security of individually identifiable health information including mandatory contractual terms and required implementation of technical safeguards of such information. HITECH also created new tiers of civil monetary penalties, amended HIPAA to make civil and criminal

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|  | penalties directly applicable to business associates, and gave state attorneys general new authority to file civil actions for damages or injunctions in federal courts to enforce the federal HIPAA laws and seek attorneys’ fees and costs associated with pursuing federal civil actions.

| ● | The U.S. Physician Payments Sunshine Act (the “Sunshine Act”), enacted as part of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, as amended by the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act of 2010 (collectively, the “ACA”), which impose new annual reporting requirements for certain manufacturers of drugs, devices, biologics, and medical supplies for which payment is available under Medicare, Medicaid, or the Children’s Health Insurance Program, for certain payments and “transfers of value” provided to physicians (defined to include doctors, dentists, optometrists, podiatrists and chiropractors), non-physician providers (such as physician assistants and nurse practitioners, among others), and teaching hospitals, as well as ownership and investment interests held by physicians and their immediate family members.

| ● | Analogous state and foreign fraud and abuse laws and regulations, such as state anti-kickback and false claims laws, which may be broader in scope and apply regardless of payor. Such laws are enforced by various state agencies and through private actions. Some state laws require pharmaceutical companies to comply with the pharmaceutical industry’s voluntary compliance guidelines and the relevant federal government compliance guidance, require drug manufacturers to report information related to payments and other transfers of value to physicians and other healthcare providers, and restrict marketing practices or require disclosure of marketing expenditures. Some state and local laws require the registration of pharmaceutical sales representatives.

| ● | The federal government and many state governments require pharmaceutical companies to submit periodic reports on product pricing.

| ● | Many states in which we operate also have laws that protect the privacy and security of protected health information which may be more stringent or broader in scope than HIPAA, or offer greater individual rights with respect to protected health information. Such laws may differ from each other, which may complicate compliance efforts. In certain cases, it may be necessary to modify our planned operations and procedures to comply with these more stringent state laws.

| ● | Numerous complex state laws and regulations that are not preempted by HIPAA govern the collection, use, disclosure, storage and transmission of personally identifiable information generally, including health-related information. These laws may be more stringent, broader in scope, and subject to varying interpretations by the courts and government agencies and are subject to frequent change. Varying interpretations of state privacy and data protection laws could create complex compliance issues for us and our partners and potentially expose us to additional expense, liability, penalties, negatively impact our client relationships, and lead to adverse publicity, and all of which could adversely affect our business in the short and long term.

| ● | States continue to introduce and adopt new and amended laws, regulations and industry standards concerning privacy, data protection and information security. The first of these was the California Consumer Privacy Act (the “CCPA”), as amended by the California Privacy Rights Act (the “CPRA”), which amendments went into effect on January 1, 2023. The CCPA requires covered companies to provide certain disclosures to consumers about its data collection, use and sharing practices, and to provide California residents with ways to exercise their data subject rights, including to opt-out of certain sales or transfers of their personal information. The CPRA amendments provided for the creation of a new agency to implement and enforce the CCPA, which also contains a private right of action for certain data breaches.

In addition to the CCPA, numerous other states have enacted or proposed similarly comprehensive privacy and data security legislation. These new laws will impose similar, additional, and in some cases more restrictive requirements than the CCPA which may add additional complexity, variation in requirements, restrictions and potential legal risk, require additional investment of resources in compliance programs, impact strategies and the availability of previously useful data and could result in increased compliance costs and/or changes in business practices and policies. There are also states that are specifically regulating health information. For example, Washington State recently passed a health privacy law that regulates the collection and sharing of health information. The law, entitled the “My Health My Data

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Act,” also has a private right of action, which potentially increases the relevant risk associated with non-compliance. Connecticut and Nevada have also passed similar laws regulating consumer health data. In addition, a small number of states have passed laws that regulate the privacy and/or security of certain types of information, such as biometric data. For example, the Biometric Information Privacy Act in Illinois includes a private right of action and has seen a significant increase in the number of claims in recent years which have included substantial judgments. These various privacy and security laws may impact our business activities, including our identification of research subjects, relationships with business partners and ultimately the marketing and distribution of our products. Certain countries outside of the U.S. in which we operate, or plan to operate, have established their own data security and privacy legal frameworks, including the GDPR. See “vii. European General Data Protection Regulation” below. Cross-border data transfers and other future developments regarding local data residency and access could increase the cost and complexity of delivering our services in some markets and may lead to governmental enforcement actions, litigation, fines and penalties or adverse publicity, could greatly increase our cost of providing our products and services, require significant changes to our operations or even prevent us from offering certain services in specific jurisdictions. In addition, any limitation on our ability to use or transmit health information outside of the U.S. could impose restrictions on our ability to recruit and maintain employees residing outside of the U.S., which could, in turn, adversely affect our business.

In the U.S., to help patients afford our approved product, we may use programs to assist them, including patient assistance programs and co-pay coupon programs for eligible patients. Patient Assistance Programs, or “PAPs,” are approved by HHS, and may include free drug programs, bridge programs, and other forms of assistance for patients to access pharmaceutical products. Government enforcement agencies have shown increased interest in pharmaceutical companies’ product and patient assistance programs, including reimbursement support services, and a number of investigations into these programs have resulted in significant civil and criminal settlements. In addition, at least one insurer has directed its network pharmacies to no longer accept co-pay coupons for certain specialty drugs the insurer identified. Our co-pay coupon programs could become the target of similar insurer actions. In addition, in November 2013, the CMS issued guidance to the issuers of qualified health plans sold through the ACA’s marketplaces encouraging such plans to reject patient cost-sharing support from third parties and indicating that the CMS intends to monitor the provision of such support and may take regulatory action to limit it in the future. The CMS subsequently issued a rule requiring individual market-qualified health plans to accept third-party premium and cost-sharing payments from certain government-related entities. In September 2014, the Office of Inspector General (the “OIG”) of the HHS issued a Special Advisory Bulletin warning manufacturers that they may be subject to sanctions under the federal anti-kickback statute and/or civil monetary penalty laws if they do not take appropriate steps to exclude Part D beneficiaries from using co-pay coupons. Accordingly, companies exclude these Part D beneficiaries from using co-pay coupons. It is possible that changes in insurer policies regarding co-pay coupons and/or the introduction and enactment of new legislation or regulatory action could restrict or otherwise negatively affect these patient support programs, which could result in fewer patients using affected products, and therefore could have a material adverse effect on our sales, business and financial condition.

Third-party patient assistance programs that receive financial support from companies have become the subject of enhanced government and regulatory scrutiny. The OIG has established guidelines that suggest that it is lawful for pharmaceutical manufacturers to make donations to charitable organizations who provide co-pay assistance to Medicare patients, provided that such organizations, among other things, are bona fide charities, are entirely independent of and not controlled by the manufacturer, provide aid to applicants on a first-come basis according to consistent financial criteria and do not link aid to use of a donor’s product. However, donations to patient assistance programs have received some negative publicity and have been the subject of multiple government enforcement actions, related to allegations regarding their use to promote branded pharmaceutical products over other less costly alternatives. Specifically, in recent years, there have been multiple settlements resulting out of government claims challenging the legality of their patient assistance programs under a variety of federal and state laws. It is possible that we may make grants to independent charitable foundations that help financially needy patients with their premium, co-pay and co-insurance obligations. If we choose to do so, and if we or our vendors or donation recipients are deemed to fail to comply with relevant laws, regulations or evolving government guidance in the operation of these programs, we could be subject to damages, fines, penalties or other criminal, civil or administrative sanctions or enforcement actions. We cannot ensure that our compliance controls, policies and procedures will be sufficient to protect against acts of our employees, business partners or vendors that may violate the laws or regulations of the jurisdictions in which we operate. Regardless of whether we have complied with the law, a government investigation could impact our business practices, harm our

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reputation, divert the attention of management, increase our expenses and reduce the availability of foundation support for our patients who need assistance.

All of these evolving compliance and operational requirements impose significant costs, such as costs related to organizational changes, implementing additional protection technologies, training employees and engaging consultants and legal advisors, which are likely to increase over time. In addition, such requirements may require us to modify our data processing practices and policies, utilize management’s time and/or divert resources from other initiatives and projects. Any failure or perceived failure by us to comply with any applicable federal, state or foreign laws and regulations relating to data privacy and security could result in damage to our reputation, as well as proceedings or litigation by governmental agencies or other third parties, including class action privacy litigation in certain jurisdictions, which would subject us to significant fines, sanctions, awards, injunctions, penalties or judgments. Any of the foregoing could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects.

The scope and enforcement of each of these laws is uncertain and subject to rapid change in the current environment of healthcare reform, especially in light of the lack of applicable precedent and regulations. Federal and state enforcement bodies have recently increased their scrutiny of interactions between healthcare companies and healthcare providers, which has led to a number of investigations, prosecutions, convictions and settlements in the healthcare industry. It is possible that governmental authorities will conclude that our business practices do not comply with current or future statutes, regulations or case law involving applicable fraud and abuse or other healthcare laws and regulations. If our operations are found to be in violation of any of these laws or any other related governmental regulations that may apply to us, we may be subject to significant civil, criminal and administrative penalties, damages, fines, individual imprisonment, disgorgement, exclusion of drugs from participation in state and federal healthcare programs, such as Medicare and Medicaid, reputational harm, additional oversight and reporting obligations if we become subject to a corporate integrity agreement or similar settlement to resolve allegations of non-compliance with these laws and the curtailment or restructuring of our operations. If any of the physicians or other healthcare providers or entities with whom we expect to do business is found to be not in compliance with applicable laws, they may be subject to similar actions, penalties and sanctions. Ensuring business arrangements comply with applicable healthcare laws, as well as responding to possible investigations by government authorities, can be time and resource consuming and can divert a company’s attention from the business.

xi. Current and Future Healthcare Reform Legislation

In the U.S. and foreign jurisdictions, there have been a number of legislative and regulatory changes and proposed changes regarding the healthcare system that could prevent or delay marketing approval of our product candidates, restrict or regulate post-approval activities and affect our ability to profitably sell any product candidates for which we obtain marketing approval. We expect that current laws, as well as other healthcare reform measures that may be adopted in the future, may result in more rigorous coverage criteria and in additional downward pressure on the price that we, or any collaborators, may receive for any approved products.

In the U.S., for example, in March 2010, the ACA was enacted. The ACA included provisions that address pharmaceutical pricing. Among other things, for example, the FDA:

| ● | subjected biological products to potential competition by lower cost biosimilars;

| ● | increased the minimum Medicaid rebates owed by manufacturers under the Medicaid Drug Rebate Program and extends the rebate program to individuals enrolled in Medicaid managed care organizations;

| ● | established annual fees and taxes on manufacturers of certain branded prescription drugs;

| ● | expanded healthcare fraud and abuse laws, including the False Claims Act and the Anti-Kickback Statute, establishes new government investigative powers and enhanced penalties for non-compliance;

| ● | created a new Medicare Part D coverage gap discount program (later replaced under the Inflation Reduction Act of 2022 (the “IRA”);

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| ● | expanded eligibility criteria for Medicaid programs and for entities eligible for discounts under the PHS Act’s 340B Drug Pricing Program; and

| ● | created a new requirement to annually report the identity and quantity of drug samples that manufacturers and authorized distributors of record provide to physicians.

Some of the provisions of the ACA have been subject to judicial challenges as well as efforts to repeal, replace or otherwise modify them or to alter their interpretation or implementation. For example:

| ● | As a result of the Budget Control Act of 2011 and subsequent legislation, there is an aggregate reduction to Medicare payments to providers of, on average, 2% per fiscal year that went into effect on April 1, 2013 and will remain in effect through 2031. As a result of the Statutory Pay-As-You-Go Act of 2010 and subsequent legislation, Medicare payments to providers may be further reduced by 4% starting in 2025, absent further legislation.

| ● | The American Rescue Plan Act of 2021 eliminated the statutory Medicaid drug rebate cap, previously set at 100% of a drug’s average manufacturer price, for single source and innovator multiple source drugs, beginning January 1, 2024.

| ● | In addition to these legislative efforts, on June 17, 2021, the U.S. Supreme Court dismissed the most recent judicial challenge to the ACA.

| ● | Additionally, there has been increasing legislative, regulatory, and enforcement interest in the U.S. with respect to drug pricing practices. Specifically, there have been several recent U.S. Congressional inquiries and proposed and enacted federal and state legislation designed to, among other things, bring more transparency to drug pricing, reduce the cost of prescription drugs under Medicare, address the potential for importation of drugs into the U.S., review the relationship between pricing and manufacturer patient programs, and reform government program reimbursement methodologies for drugs.

| ● | The IRA includes several provisions that may impact our business to varying degrees, including provisions that create a $2,000 out-of-pocket cap for Medicare Part D beneficiaries on prescription drugs, impose new requirements for manufacturers of all drugs to offer discounts under Medicare Part D, allow the U.S. government to negotiate Medicare Part B and Part D pricing for certain high-cost drugs and biologics without generic or biosimilar competition, and require companies to pay rebates to Medicare for drug prices that increase faster than inflation. Drugs and biologics that have received orphan designation for one rare disease or condition and the only approved indication is for that disease or condition are exempted from the IRA’s price negotiation provisions. A drug or biologic with orphan designations for multiple diseases or conditions or with multiple indications, however, will remain potentially subject to the price negotiation provisions. Under the One Big Beautiful Bill Act of 2025, this restriction was eliminated; and effective for the 2028 initial price applicability year, all orphan drugs, regardless of the number of orphan drug designations or indications, are exempt from the Medicare drug price negotiation program. The implementation of the IRA is currently subject to ongoing litigation challenging the constitutionality of the IRA’s Medicare drug price negotiation program. Although the effects of the IRA on our business and the healthcare industry in general are not yet known, we are taking into consideration the potential impact of the IRA on our development and commercialization activities.

| ● | On April 15, 2025, the Trump Administration published Executive Order 14273, “Lowering Drug Prices by Once Again Putting Americans First,” which generally directs the federal government to take measures to reduce drug prices, including eliminating the so-called “pill penalty” under the IRA that creates a distinction between small molecule and large molecule products for purposes of determining when a drug may be eligible for drug price negotiation. On May 12, 2025, the Trump Administration published Executive Order 14297, “Delivering Most-Favored-Nation Prescription Drug Pricing to American Patients” which generally, among other things, directs the federal government to establish and communicate most-favored-nation price targets to

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|  | pharmaceutical manufacturers to bring prices for American patients in line with comparably developed nations. Further, the Executive Order directs the federal government to support regulatory paths to allow direct-to-patient sales for companies that meet these targets. It also states that the Administration will take additional aggressive action (for example, examining whether marketing approvals should be modified or rescinded or opening the door for individual drug importation waivers) should manufacturers fail to offer American consumers the most-favored-nation lowest price. It also directs the Secretary of Commerce and the U.S. Trade Representative to “take all necessary and appropriate action to ensure foreign countries are not engaged in any act, policy, or practice that may be unreasonable or discriminatory or that may impair United States national security . . . including by suppressing the price of pharmaceutical products below fair market value in foreign countries.” Notably, a similar “Most Favored Nation” pricing rule enacted under the first Trump Administration was subject to an injunction resulting from judicial challenges to the rule, which was formally rescinded by the former Biden Administration in August 2021.

| ● | On November 6, 2025, CMS announced a new drug payment model designed to make Most Favored Nation (“MFN”)-level prices available to state Medicaid programs via manufacturer rebates. Referred to as the “GENErating cost Reductions fOr U.S. Medicaid Model” (“GENEROUS”), the initiative is designed to run from 2026 through 2030 and is voluntary for both manufacturers and state Medicaid programs. Under the model, participating states will be able to access MFN-level prices for participating manufacturers’ drugs through CMS-negotiated supplemental rebates tied to an MFN net price benchmark.

| ● | On December 19, 2025, the CMS proposed a mandatory Center for Medicare and Medicaid Innovation (“CMMI”) drug payment model to test whether alternative methods for calculating Medicare rebates, based on international pricing metrics rather than inflation-based metrics, reduce costs for Medicare fee-for-service (“FFS”) beneficiaries and the Medicare program while preserving quality of care. The Guarding U.S. Medicare Against Rising Drug Costs (“GUARD”) Model, would test an alternative approach to calculating rebates for certain Medicare Part D products using international pricing benchmarks. The GUARD Model would begin on January 1, 2027, and run through December 31, 2033. Further, on December 19, 2025, CMS proposed the Global Benchmark for Efficient Drug Pricing Model (“GLOBE”) for Medicare Part B, would require manufacturers of specified single-source drugs and sole-source biologics to pay incremental rebates based on international benchmark prices, with participation triggered for products meeting CMS’s spending and eligibility criteria. As proposed, GLOBE would begin a five-year performance period on October 1, 2026.

| ● | On December 2, 2020, the HHS published a regulation removing safe harbor protection for price reductions from pharmaceutical manufacturers to plan sponsors under Part D, either directly or through PBMs, unless the price reduction is required by law. The rule also creates a new safe harbor for price reductions reflected at the point-of-sale, as well as a safe harbor for certain fixed fee arrangements between PBMs and manufacturers. Implementation of this change and new safe harbors for point-of-sale reductions in price for prescription pharmaceutical products and PBM service fees are currently under review by the current United States presidential administration and may be amended or repealed. Further, on December 31, 2020, the CMS published a new rule, effective January 1, 2023, requiring manufacturers to ensure the full value of co-pay assistance is passed on to the patient or these dollars will count toward the Average Manufacturer Price and Best Price calculation of the drug (“Accumulator Rule”). On May 17, 2022, the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia granted the Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of America's (PhRMA) motion for summary judgement invalidating the Accumulator Rule.  We cannot predict how the implementation of and any further changes to this rule will affect our business. Although a number of these and other proposed measures may require authorization through additional legislation to become effective, and the current United States presidential administration may reverse or otherwise change these measures. Both the current United States presidential administration and Congress have indicated that they will continue to seek new legislative measures to control drug costs.

Although a number of these and other proposed measures may require authorization through additional legislation to become effective, and the Trump administration may reverse or otherwise change these measures, both the Trump administration and Congress have indicated that they will continue to seek new legislative measures to control drug costs.

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Individual states in the U.S. have also increasingly passed legislation and implemented regulations designed to control pharmaceutical product pricing, including by imposing restraints on pricing or reimbursement at the state government level, limitations on discounts to patients, restrictions on certain product access, marketing cost disclosure and other transparency measures, and, in some cases, measures designed to encourage importation of pharmaceutical products from other countries (subject to federal approval) and bulk purchasing. Certain states are also pursuing cost containment efforts through Prescription Drug Affordability Boards (“PDABs”) and similar entities. While many PDABs have been granted authority to promote drug price transparency and reporting, some states have granted PDABs more expansive authority, including to set Upper Payment Limits (UPLs) on select, high price drugs. The adoption and implementation of UPLs may put downward pressure on drug prices and impact our company’s future revenues.

xii. Packaging and Distribution in the U.S.

If our products are made available to authorized users of the Federal Supply Schedule of the General Services Administration, additional laws and requirements apply. Products must meet applicable child resistant packaging requirements under the U.S. Poison Prevention Packaging Act. Manufacturing, sales, promotion and other activities also are potentially subject to federal and state consumer protection and unfair competition laws.

The distribution of pharmaceutical products is subject to additional requirements and regulations, including extensive record keeping, licensing, storage and security requirements intended to prevent the unauthorized sale of pharmaceutical products.

The failure to comply with any of these laws or regulatory requirements subjects firms to possible legal or regulatory action. Depending on the circumstances, failure to meet applicable regulatory requirements can result in criminal prosecution, fines or other penalties, injunctions, exclusion from federal healthcare programs, requests for recall, seizure of products, total or partial suspension of production, denial or withdrawal of product approvals, or refusal to allow a firm to enter into supply contracts, including government contracts.

Changes in regulations, statutes or the interpretation of existing regulations could impact our business in the future by requiring, for example: (i) changes to our manufacturing arrangements; (ii) additions or modifications to product labeling; (iii) the recall or discontinuation of our products; or (iv) additional record keeping requirements.

xiii. Other U.S. Environmental, Health and Safety Laws and Regulations

We may be subject to numerous environmental, health and safety laws and regulations, including those governing laboratory procedures and the handling, use, storage, treatment and disposal of hazardous materials and wastes. From time to time and in the future, our operations may involve the use of hazardous and flammable materials, including chemicals and biological materials, and may also produce hazardous waste products. Even if we contract with third parties for the disposal of these materials and waste products, we cannot completely eliminate the risk of contamination or injury resulting from these materials. In the event of contamination or injury resulting from the use or disposal of our hazardous materials, we could be held liable for any resulting damages, and any liability could exceed our resources. We also could incur significant costs associated with civil or criminal fines and penalties for failure to comply with such laws and regulations.

We maintain workers’ compensation insurance to cover us for costs and expenses we may incur due to injuries to our employees, but this insurance may not provide adequate coverage against potential liabilities. However, we do not maintain insurance for environmental liability or toxic tort claims that may be asserted against us.

xiv. U.S. Patent Term Restoration and Marketing Exclusivity

Depending upon the timing, duration and specifics of FDA approval of our current product candidates and any future product candidates, some of our U.S. patents may be eligible for limited patent term extension under the Drug Price Competition and Patent Term Restoration Act of 1984, commonly referred to as the Hatch Waxman Amendments. The Hatch Waxman Amendments permit restoration of the patent term of up to five years as compensation for patent term lost during product development and FDA regulatory review process. Patent term restoration, however, cannot extend the remaining term of a patent beyond a total of 14 years from the product’s approval date. The patent term restoration

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period is generally one half the time between the effective date of an IND and the submission date of a BLA plus the time between the submission date of a BLA and the approval of that application, except that the review period is reduced by any time during which the applicant failed to exercise due diligence. Only one patent applicable to an approved drug is eligible for the extension and the application for the extension must be submitted prior to the expiration of the patent. The U.S. PTO, in consultation with the FDA, reviews and approves the application for any patent term extension or restoration. In the future, we may apply for restoration of patent term for our currently owned or licensed patents to add patent life beyond its current expiration date, depending on the expected length of the clinical trials and other factors involved in the filing of the relevant BLA.

An abbreviated approval pathway for biological products shown to be biosimilar to, or interchangeable with, an FDA licensed reference biological product was created by the Biologics Price Competition and Innovation Act of 2009 (“BPCI Act”). This amendment to the PHSA, in part, attempts to minimize duplicative testing. Biosimilarity, which requires that the biological product be highly similar to the reference product notwithstanding minor differences in clinically inactive components and that there be no clinically meaningful differences between the product and the reference product in terms of safety, purity and potency, can be shown through analytical studies, animal studies and a clinical trial or trials. Interchangeability requires that a biological product be biosimilar to the reference product and that the product can be expected to produce the same clinical results as the reference product in any given patient and, for products administered multiple times to an individual, that the product and the reference product may be alternated or switched after one has been previously administered without increasing safety risks or risks of diminished efficacy relative to exclusive use of the reference biological product without such alternation or switch.

A reference biological product is granted 12 years of data exclusivity from the time of first licensure of the product, and the FDA will not accept an application for a biosimilar or interchangeable product based on the reference biological product until four years after the date of first licensure of the reference product. “First licensure” typically means the initial date the particular product at issue was licensed in the U.S. Date of first licensure does not include the date of licensure of (and a new period of exclusivity is not available for) a biological product if the licensure is for a supplement for the biological product or for a subsequent application by the same sponsor or manufacturer of the biological product (or licensor, predecessor in interest, or other related entity) for a change (not including a modification to the structure of the biological product) that results in a new indication, route of administration, dosing schedule, dosage form, delivery system, delivery device or strength, or for a modification to the structure of the biological product that does not result in a change in safety, purity, or potency. The first biological product determined to be interchangeable with a reference product for any condition of use is also eligible for a period of exclusivity during which time the FDA may not determine that another product is interchangeable with the same reference product for any condition of use. The FDA may approve multiple “first” interchangeable products so long as they are all approved on the same first day of marketing.

Pediatric exclusivity is another type of regulatory market exclusivity in the U.S. Pediatric exclusivity, if granted, adds six months to existing regulatory exclusivity periods for all formulations, dosage forms, and indications of the biologic. This six-month exclusivity may be granted based on the voluntary completion of a pediatric trial that fairly responds to an FDA issued “Written Request” for such a trial.

b. European Union Drug Development

In the EU, our future products also may be subject to extensive regulatory requirements. As in the U.S., medicinal products can be marketed only if a marketing authorization (“MA”) from the competent regulatory agencies has been obtained.

Similar to the U.S., the various phases of preclinical and clinical research in the EU are subject to significant regulatory controls.

In April 2014, the EU adopted the Clinical Trials Regulation EU No 536/2014, which replaced the Clinical Trials Directive 2001/20/EC on January 31, 2022, subject to transitional provisions which meant that since January 31, 2025, all clinical trials in the EU have been subject to the Clinical Trials Regulation. The main characteristics of the Clinical Trials Regulation include: a streamlined application procedure via a single-entry point through the Clinical Trials Information System (“CTIS”); a single set of documents to be prepared and submitted for the application as well as simplified reporting procedures for clinical trial sponsors; and a harmonized procedure for the assessment of applications for clinical trials, which is divided into two parts (Part I contains scientific and medicinal product documentation and

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Part II contains the national and patient-level documentation). Part I is assessed by a coordinated review by the competent authorities of all EU Member States in which an application for authorization of a clinical trial has been submitted (Member States concerned) of a draft report prepared by a reporting Member State. Part II is assessed separately by each Member State concerned. Strict deadlines have been established for the assessment of clinical trial applications. The role of the relevant ethics committees in the assessment procedure continues to be governed by the national law of the concerned EU Member State. However, overall related timelines are defined by the Clinical Trials Regulation.

In the EU the Paediatric Committee (“PDCO”) of the EMA must agree to a pediatric investigation plan (“PIP”) (or grant a product-specific waiver, class waiver and/or deferral) in connection with an applicant filing a MAA, unless the EMA has granted a product-specific waiver or a class waiver. The PIP outlines the pharmaceutical company’s strategy for investigation of the new medicinal product in the pediatric population. Before an MAA can be filed, or an existing MA can be amended, the EMA determines whether companies actually comply with the agreed studies and measures listed in each relevant PIP. If an applicant obtains a MA in all EU Member States, or a MA granted in the centralized procedure by the EC, and the study results for the pediatric population are included in the product information, even when negative, the medicine is then eligible for an additional six-month period of qualifying patent protection through extension of the term of any supplementary protection certificate (“SPC”), provided an application for such extension is made at the same time as filing the SPC application for the product, or at any point up to 2 years before the SPC expires. The incentive in the case of orphan medicinal products is that a two-year extension of the orphan market exclusivity may be available. This pediatric reward is subject to specific conditions and is not automatically available when data in compliance with the PIP are developed and submitted.

i. European Union Expedited Review and Development

PRIME is a scheme provided by the EMA to enhance support for the development of medicines that target an unmet medical need and may facilitate accelerated assessment of products representing substantial innovation where the MAA will be made through the centralized procedure. To qualify for PRIME, product candidates require early clinical evidence that the therapy has the potential to offer a major therapeutic advantage over existing treatments or benefits patients without treatment options. Products from small-and medium-sized enterprises (“SMEs”) may qualify for earlier entry into the PRIME scheme than larger companies. Among the benefits of PRIME are the appointment of a rapporteur to provide continuous support and help build knowledge ahead of an MAA, early dialogue and scientific advice at key development milestones, and the potential to qualify products for accelerated review earlier in the application process. The receipt of PRIME designation does not change the standards for approval but may expedite the development or approval process. Where, during the course of development, a product no longer meets the eligibility criteria, support under the PRIME scheme may be withdrawn.

ii. European Union Drug Marketing

Much like the Anti-Kickback Statute prohibition in the U.S., the provision of benefits or advantages to physicians to induce or encourage the prescription, recommendation, endorsement, purchase, supply, order or use of medicinal products is also prohibited in the EU. The provision of benefits or advantages to physicians to induce or reward improper performance generally is typically governed by the national anti-bribery laws of EU Member States, and the Bribery Act 2010 in the UK. Infringement of these laws could result in substantial fines and imprisonment. EU Directive 2001/83/EC, which is the EU Directive governing medicinal products for human use, further provides that, where medicinal products are being promoted to persons qualified to prescribe or supply them, no gifts, pecuniary advantages or benefits in kind may be supplied, offered or promised to such persons unless they are inexpensive and relevant to the practice of medicine or pharmacy. This provision has been transposed into the Human Medicines Regulations 2012 and so remains applicable in the UK despite its departure from the EU.

Payments made to physicians in certain EU Member States must be publicly disclosed. Moreover, agreements with physicians often must be the subject of prior notification and approval by the physician’s employer, his or her competent professional organization and/or the regulatory authorities of the individual EU Member States. These requirements are provided in the national laws, industry codes or professional codes of conduct, applicable in the EU Member States. Failure to comply with these requirements could result in reputational risk, public reprimands, administrative penalties, fines or imprisonment.

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iii. European Union Drug Review and Approval

In the EU, medicinal products can only be commercialized after obtaining a MA. There are two types of MAs.

Centralized MAs, which are issued by the EC through the centralized procedure, based on the opinion of the CHMP of the EMA, are valid throughout the EU, and in the additional states of the European Economic Area (“EEA”) (Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway). The centralized procedure is mandatory for certain types of products, such as medicinal products produced by certain biotechnological processes, products designated as orphan medicinal products, advanced therapy medicinal products (i.e., gene therapy, somatic cell therapy or tissue engineered medicines) and medicinal products containing a new active substance indicated for the treatment of HIV, AIDS, cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, diabetes, autoimmune and other immune dysfunctions and viral diseases. The centralized procedure is optional for products containing a new active substance not yet authorized in the EU, or for products that constitute a significant therapeutic, scientific or technical innovation or which are in the interest of public health in the EU.

National MAs, which are issued by the competent authorities of the EU Member States and only cover their respective territory, are available for products not falling within the mandatory scope of the centralized procedure. Where a product has already been authorized for marketing in an EU Member State, this national MA can be recognized in another EU Member State through the mutual recognition procedure. If the product has not received a national MA in any EU Member State at the time of application, it can be approved simultaneously in various EU Member States through the decentralized procedure. Under the decentralized procedure an identical dossier is submitted to the competent authorities of each of the EU Member States in which the MA is sought, one of which is selected by the applicant as the reference Member State (“RMS”). The competent authority of the RMS prepares a draft assessment report, a draft summary of the product characteristics (“SmPC”), and a draft of the labeling and package leaflet, which are sent to the other Member States (referred to as the Member States Concerned) for their approval. If the Member States Concerned raise no objections, based on a potential serious risk to public health, to the assessment, SmPC, labeling, or packaging proposed by the RMS, the product is subsequently granted a national MA in all the Member States involved (i.e., in the RMS and the Member States Concerned).

Under the above described procedures, before granting the MA, the EMA or the competent authorities of the EU Member States make an assessment of the risk benefit balance of the product on the basis of scientific criteria concerning its quality, safety and efficacy. Following approval, MA holders are subject to ongoing obligations, including pharmacovigilance and safety reporting requirements.

iv. European Union Data and Market Exclusivity

In the EU, innovative products authorized for marketing (i.e., reference products) qualify for eight years of data exclusivity and an additional two years of market exclusivity upon MA. The data exclusivity, if granted, prevents applicants for authorization of generics or biosimilars of these innovative products from referencing the innovator’s preclinical and clinical trial data contained in the dossier of the reference product when applying for a generic or biosimilar MA in the EU, during a period of eight years from the date on which the reference product was first authorized in the EU. During an additional two-year period of market exclusivity, a generic or biosimilar MAA can be submitted, and the innovator’s data may be referenced, but no generic or biosimilar medicinal product can be placed on the EU market until the expiration of the market exclusivity. The overall 10-year period will be extended to a maximum of 11 years if, during the first eight years of those 10 years, the MA holder obtains an authorization for one or more new therapeutic indications which, during the scientific evaluation prior to their authorization, are determined to bring a significant clinical benefit in comparison with currently approved therapies. There is no guarantee that a product will be considered by the EMA to be an innovative medicinal product, and products may not qualify for data exclusivity. Even if a product is considered to be an innovative medicinal product so that the innovator gains the prescribed period of data exclusivity, another company nevertheless could also market another version of the product if such company obtained an MA based on an MAA with a complete and independent data package of pharmaceutical tests, preclinical tests and clinical trials.

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v. European Union Orphan Designation and Exclusivity

In the EU, after a recommendation from the EMA’s Committee for Orphan Medicinal Products (“COMP”), the European Commission (“EC”) may grant orphan designation to a product if (1) the product is intended for the diagnosis, prevention or treatment of a life-threatening or chronically debilitating condition; (2) either (a) such condition affects no more than five in 10,000 persons in the EU when the application is made, or (b) it is unlikely that the product, without the benefits derived from orphan status, would generate sufficient return in the EU to justify the necessary investment in its development; and (3) there exists no satisfactory method of diagnosis, prevention or treatment of such condition authorized for marketing in the EU or, if a method exists, the product would be a significant benefit to those affected by that condition.

In the EU, orphan designation entitles a party to financial incentives such as reduction of fees or fee waivers and 10 years of market exclusivity is granted following medicinal product approval during which time no “similar medicinal product” may be placed on the market. A “similar medicinal product” is defined as a medicinal product containing a similar active substance or substances as contained in an authorized orphan medicinal product, and which is intended for the same therapeutic indication. This period may be reduced to six years if, at the end of the fifth year, it is determined that the orphan designation criteria are no longer met, including where it is shown that the product is sufficiently profitable so as not to justify maintenance of market exclusivity. Orphan designation must be requested before submitting an application for an MA. We will be required to apply for the maintenance of the orphan designation granted to apitegromab for the treatment of SMA at the time of applying for an MA. Orphan designation does not convey any advantage in, or shorten the duration of, the regulatory review and approval process.

The aforementioned EU rules are generally applicable in the EEA.

vi. Reform of the Regulatory Framework in the European Union

The EC introduced legislative proposals in April 2023 that, if implemented, will replace the current regulatory framework in the EU for all medicines (including those for rare diseases and for children). In April 2024, the European Parliament adopted its position on the legislative proposals and, in June 2025, the Council of the European Union adopted its position. A common position on the text has been agreed upon on December 11, 2025, in the context of subsequent inter-institutional trilogue negotiations. The proposed revisions remain to be adopted, and are not expected to become applicable before 2028.

vii. European General Data Protection Regulation

Since we conduct clinical trials in the EEA, we are subject to additional European data privacy laws. The GDPR, became effective on May 25, 2018, and deals with the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data. The GDPR imposes a broad range of strict requirements on companies subject to the GDPR, including requirements relating to having legal bases for processing personal data (such as health and other sensitive data,) relating to identifiable individuals and transferring such information outside the EEA, including to the U.S., providing details to those individuals regarding the processing of their personal information, keeping personal information secure, obtaining consent (where required) of the individuals to whom the personal data relates, having data processing agreements with third parties who process personal information, responding to individuals’ requests to exercise their rights in respect of their personal information, reporting security breaches involving personal data to the competent national data protection authority and affected individuals, appointing data protection officers, conducting data protection impact assessments, and record-keeping. The GDPR increases substantially the penalties to which we could be subject in the event of any non-compliance, including fines of up to 10,000,000 Euros or up to 2% of our total worldwide annual turnover for certain comparatively minor offenses, or up to 20,000,000 Euros or up to 4% of our total worldwide annual turnover for more serious offenses, whichever is greater. The GDPR also confers a private right of action on data subjects and consumer associations to lodge complaints with supervisory authorities, seek judicial remedies, and obtain compensation for damages resulting from violations of the GDPR. In addition, the GDPR includes restrictions on cross-border data transfers. The GDPR may increase our responsibility and liability in relation to personal data that we process where such processing is subject to the GDPR, and we may be required to put in place additional mechanisms to ensure compliance with the GDPR, including as implemented by individual countries. Given the limited enforcement of the GDPR to date, we face uncertainty as to the exact interpretation of the new requirements on our trials and we may be unsuccessful in implementing all measures required by data protection authorities or courts in interpretation of the new law. Compliance with the GDPR will be a rigorous and time-intensive process that may increase our cost of doing business or require us

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to change our business practices, and despite those efforts, there is a risk that we may be subject to fines and penalties, litigation, and reputational harm in connection with our European activities.

National laws of member states of the EU are in the process of being adapted to the requirements under the GDPR, thereby implementing national laws which may partially deviate from the GDPR and impose different obligations from country to country, so that we do not expect to operate in a uniform legal landscape in the EEA. Also, as it relates to processing and transfer of genetic data, the GDPR specifically allows national laws to impose additional and more specific requirements or restrictions, and European laws have historically differed quite substantially in this field, leading to additional uncertainty. In the UK, the UK’s European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018 incorporates the into UK law, referred to as the UK GDPR. The UK has also recently adopted the Data (Use and Access) Act 2025 (the “DUAA”) on 19 June 2025. The UK GDPR, the UK Data Protection Act 2018 and the DUAA set out the UK’s data protection regime, which is independent from but aligned to the EU’s data protection regime. Non-compliance with the UK GDPR may result in monetary penalties of up to £17.5 million or 4% of worldwide revenue, whichever is higher. Although the UK is regarded as a third country under the EU’s GDPR, the EC has recently (in December 2025) extended the validity of the UK adequacy decision for six years until December 2031, which recognizes the UK as providing adequate protection under the EU GDPR and, therefore, transfers of personal data originating in the EU to the UK remain unrestricted. Like the EU GDPR, the UK GDPR restricts personal data transfers outside the UK to countries not regarded by the UK as providing adequate protection. The UK government has confirmed that personal data transfers from the UK to the EEA remain free flowing.

In the event we continue to conduct clinical trials in the EEA, we must also ensure that we maintain adequate safeguards to enable the transfer of personal data outside of the EEA, in particular to the U.S., in compliance with European data protection laws. The GDPR also imposes strict rules on the transfer of personal data outside of the EEA and UK to countries that do not ensure an adequate level of protection, like the U.S.. We must, therefore, ensure that we maintain adequate safeguards to enable the transfer of personal data outside of the EEA or the UK, in compliance with European data protection laws. In some cases, we rely upon the EC approved standard contractual clauses to legitimize transfers of personal data out of the EEA from controllers or processors established outside the EEA (and not subject to the GDPR). The UK is not subject to the EC’s standard contractual clauses but has published its own transfer mechanism, the International Data Transfer Agreement, which enables transfers from the UK. Changes with respect to any of these matters may lead to additional costs and increase our overall risk exposure. The EU and United States have adopted its adequacy decision for the EU-U.S. Data Privacy Framework, or Framework, which entered into force on July 11, 2023. This Framework provides that the protection of personal data transferred between the EU and the U.S. is comparable to that offered in the EU. This provides a further avenue to ensuring transfers to the U.S. are carried out in line with GDPR. There has been an extension to the Framework to cover UK transfers to the United States. The Framework could be challenged like its predecessor frameworks.

c. Regulation in the United Kingdom

Following the end of the Brexit transition period on January 1, 2021 and the implementation of the Windsor Framework on January 1, 2025, the UK is not generally subject to EU laws in respect of medicines. The EU laws that have been transposed into UK law through secondary legislation remain applicable in the UK, however, new legislation such as the EU Clinical Trials Regulation is not applicable in the UK.

As of January 1, 2021, the Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency, or MHRA, is the UK’s standalone medicines and medical devices regulator. On January 1, 2025 a new arrangement called the “Windsor Framework” came into effect and reintegrated Northern Ireland under the regulatory authority of the MHRA with respect to medicinal products. The Windsor Framework removes EU licensing processes and EU labeling and serialization requirements in relation to Northern Ireland and introduces a UK-wide licensing process for medicines.

i. Clinical Trials

The UK has implemented the EU Clinical Trials Directive 2001/20/EC (now repealed in the EU) into national law through the Medicines for Human Use (Clinical Trials) Regulations 2004 (as amended). However, in April 2025, the UK introduced the Medicines for Human Use (Clinical Trials) (Amendment) Regulations 2025—which, when in force, will amend and update the current regulatory framework for clinical trials in the UK. The legislation aims to provide a more flexible regime to make it easier to conduct clinical trials in the UK and increase the transparency of clinical trials conducted in the UK. This includes a notification scheme to enable lower-risk clinical trials to be deemed approved by the MHRA within a short period of time (unless an objection is raised), where the risk is similar to that of standard

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medical care (although such trials would still require ethics committee approval). Such regulations come into force on April 28, 2026.

ii. Orphan Designation

A separate process for orphan designation to the EU process now applies in the UK. There is no pre-marketing authorization orphan designation (as there is in the EU) in the UK and the application for orphan designation will be reviewed by the MHRA at the time of an application for a UK MA. The criteria for orphan designation remain broadly aligned to the EU, except that they apply to the UK only (e.g., there must be no satisfactory method of diagnosis, prevention or treatment of the condition in the UK, as opposed to the EU).

d. Rest of the World Regulation

For other countries outside of the UK, the EU and the U.S., such as countries in Eastern Europe, Latin America or Asia, the requirements governing the conduct of clinical trials, product licensing, pricing and reimbursement vary from country to country. Additionally, the clinical trials must be conducted in accordance with GCP requirements and the applicable regulatory requirements and the ethical principles that have their origin in the Declaration of Helsinki.

e. Additional Laws and Regulations Governing International Operations

If we further expand our operations outside of the U.S., we must dedicate additional resources to comply with numerous laws and regulations in each jurisdiction in which we plan to operate. The Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (“FCPA”) prohibits any U.S. individual or business from paying, offering, authorizing payment or offering of anything of value, directly or indirectly, to any foreign official, political party or candidate for the purpose of influencing any act or decision of the foreign entity in order to assist the individual or business in obtaining or retaining business. The FCPA also obligates companies whose securities are listed in the U.S. to comply with certain accounting provisions requiring the company to maintain books and records that accurately and fairly reflect all transactions of the corporation, including international subsidiaries, and to devise and maintain an adequate system of internal accounting controls for international operations.

Compliance with the FCPA is expensive and difficult, particularly in countries in which corruption is a recognized problem. In addition, the FCPA presents particular challenges in the pharmaceutical industry, because, in many countries, hospitals are operated by the government, and doctors and other hospital employees are considered foreign officials. Certain payments to hospitals in connection with clinical trials and other work have been deemed to be improper payments to government officials and have led to FCPA enforcement actions.

Various laws, regulations and executive orders also restrict the use and dissemination outside of the U.S., or the sharing with certain non-U.S. nationals, of information classified for national security purposes, as well as certain products and technical data relating to those products. If we expand our presence outside of the U.S., it will require us to dedicate additional resources to comply with these laws, and these laws may preclude us from developing, manufacturing, or selling certain products and product candidates outside of the U.S., which could limit our growth potential and increase our development costs.

The failure to comply with laws governing international business practices may result in substantial civil and criminal penalties and suspension or debarment from government contracting. The U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (“SEC”) also may suspend or bar issuers from trading securities on U.S. exchanges for violations of the FCPA’s accounting provisions.

XII.Coverage and Reimbursement

Government authorities and other third-party payors, such as private health insurers and health maintenance organizations, decide which drugs and treatments they will cover and the amount of reimbursement. In the U.S., the principal decisions about reimbursement for new medicines are typically made by CMS, an agency within the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. CMS decides whether and to what extent a new medicine will be covered and reimbursed under Medicare and private payors tend to follow CMS to a substantial degree.

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Coverage and reimbursement by a third-party payor may depend upon a number of factors, including the third-party payor’s determination that use of a product is (i) a covered benefit under its health plan; (ii) safe, effective and medically necessary; (iii) appropriate for the specific patient; (iv) cost-effective; and (v) neither experimental nor investigational.

In the U.S. no uniform policy of coverage and reimbursement for drugs or biological products exists, and one payor’s determination to provide coverage and adequate reimbursement for a product does not assure that other payors will make a similar determination. Accordingly, decisions regarding the extent of coverage and amount of reimbursement to be provided for any of our products candidates, if approved, will be made on a payor by payor basis. The level of coverage and reimbursement for products can differ significantly from payor to payor. One payor’s decision to cover a particular medical product or service does not ensure that other payors will also provide coverage for the medical product or service, or will provide coverage at an adequate reimbursement rate. The coverage determination process may be a time consuming and costly process that will require us to provide scientific and clinical support for the use of our products to each payor separately, with no assurance that coverage and adequate reimbursement will be obtained. In order to secure coverage and reimbursement for any product that might be approved for sale, a company may need to conduct expensive pharmacoeconomic studies in order to demonstrate the medical necessity and cost-effectiveness of the product, in addition to the costs required to obtain FDA or other comparable regulatory approvals. Additionally, companies may also need to provide discounts to purchasers, private health plans or government healthcare programs.

A third-party payor’s decision to provide coverage for a product does not imply that an adequate reimbursement rate will be approved. The containment of healthcare costs has become a priority of federal, state and foreign governments and payors, and the prices of products have been a focus in this effort. Governments have shown significant interest in implementing cost-containment programs, including price controls, restrictions on reimbursement and requirements for substitution of generic products. Adoption of price controls and cost-containment measures and adoption of more restrictive policies in jurisdictions with existing controls and measures, could further limit a company’s revenue generated from the sale of any approved products. Furthermore, as part of government efforts to reduce drug prices, many pharmaceutical manufacturers must calculate and report certain price reporting metrics to the government, such as average sales price, or ASP, and best price. Penalties may apply in some cases when such metrics are not submitted accurately and timely.

Coverage policies and third-party payor reimbursement rates may change at any time, which could affect physician usage and patient demand. Net prices for drugs may be reduced by mandatory discounts or rebates required by government healthcare programs or private payors and by any future relaxation of laws that presently restrict imports of drugs from countries where they may be sold at lower prices than in the United States. Increasingly, third-party payors are requiring that drug companies provide them with predetermined discounts from list prices and are challenging the prices charged for medical products. We cannot be sure that reimbursement will be available for any product candidate that we commercialize and, if reimbursement is available, the level of reimbursement. Even if favorable coverage and reimbursement status is attained for one or more products for which a company or its collaborators receive regulatory approval, less favorable coverage policies and reimbursement rates may be implemented in the future, which could affect physician usage and patient demand.

Additional federal programs apply to pharmaceutical companies that affect coverage and reimbursement for drug products. For example, the Medicaid Drug Rebate Program requires pharmaceutical manufacturers to enter into and have in effect a national rebate agreement with the Secretary of the HHS as a condition for states to receive federal matching funds for the manufacturer’s outpatient drugs furnished to Medicaid patients. The ACA also expanded the universe of Medicaid utilization subject to drug rebates by requiring pharmaceutical manufacturers to pay rebates on Medicaid managed care utilization and by enlarging the population potentially eligible for Medicaid drug benefits. Pricing and rebate programs must also comply with the Medicaid rebate requirements of the U.S. Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1990.

The Medicare Prescription Drug, Improvement, and Modernization Act of 2003 (the “MMA”) established the Medicare Part D program to provide a voluntary prescription drug benefit to Medicare beneficiaries. Under Part D, Medicare beneficiaries may enroll in prescription drug plans offered by private entities that prescription drug coverage. Part D prescription drug plan sponsors are not required to pay for all covered Part D drugs, and each drug plan can develop its own drug formulary that identifies which drugs it will cover and at what tier or level. Although Part D prescription drug

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formularies must include drugs within each therapeutic category and class of covered Part D drugs, not necessarily all the drugs in each category or class must be included. Any formulary used by a Part D prescription drug plan must be developed and reviewed by a pharmacy and therapeutic committee. Government payment for some of the costs of prescription drugs may increase demand for products for which we receive marketing approval. However, any negotiated prices for our products covered by a Part D prescription drug plan likely will be lower than the prices we might otherwise obtain. Moreover, while the MMA applies only to drug benefits for Medicare beneficiaries, private payors often follow Medicare coverage policy and payment limitations in setting their own payment rates. Any reduction in payment that results from the MMA may result in a similar reduction in payments from non-governmental payors.

For a drug product to receive federal reimbursement under the Medicaid or Medicare Part B programs or to be sold directly to U.S. government agencies, the manufacturer must extend discounts to entities eligible to participate in the 340B drug pricing program. The required 340B discount on a given product is calculated based on the AMP and Medicaid rebate amounts reported by the manufacturer. As of 2010, the ACA expanded the types of entities eligible to receive discounted 340B pricing, although, under the current state of the law, with the exception of children’s hospitals, these newly eligible entities will not be eligible to receive discounted 340B pricing on orphan drugs. In addition, as 340B drug pricing is determined based on AMP and Medicaid rebate data, the revisions to the Medicaid rebate formula and AMP definition described above could cause the required 340B discount to increase.

These laws, and future state and federal healthcare reform measures may be adopted in the future, any of which may result in additional reductions in Medicare and other healthcare funding and otherwise affect the prices we may obtain for any of our product candidates for which we may obtain regulatory approval or the frequency with which any such product candidate is prescribed or used.

In addition, in most foreign countries, the proposed pricing for a drug must be approved before it may be lawfully marketed. The requirements governing drug pricing and reimbursement vary widely from country to country. For example, the EU provides options for its member states to restrict the range of medicinal products for which their national health insurance systems provide reimbursement and to control the prices of medicinal products for human use. Reference pricing used by various EU Member States and parallel distribution, or arbitrage between low priced and high priced member states, can further reduce prices. A member state may approve a specific price for the medicinal product or it may instead adopt a system of direct or indirect controls on the profitability of the company placing the medicinal product on the market. In some countries, we may be required to conduct a clinical study or other studies that compare the cost effectiveness of any of our product candidates to other available therapies in order to obtain or maintain reimbursement or pricing approval. Historically, products launched in the EU do not follow price structures of the U.S. and generally prices tend to be significantly lower. Publication of discounts by third-party payors or authorities may lead to further pressure on the prices or reimbursement levels within the country of publication and other countries.

| XIII. | Human Capital

Our employees are relentlessly focused on the discovery and development of innovative medicines dedicated to improving the lives of children and adults with SMA and additional rare, severe and debilitating neuromuscular diseases. As a leader in the biology of the TGFβ superfamily, we believe that passion for science is what guides us to excellence. Our commitment to changing the lives of people with serious disease is what motivates us to show up each and every day. Our people are our most important asset who help us achieve extraordinary results and create new possibilities for patients. They embody our values and bring them to life in everything we do. We are inspired and guided by these values of focusing on the patient, cultivating curiosity, collaborating with purpose, upholding high standards and accelerating breakthroughs in making a difference in the lives of patients, families and communities.

a. Employees

As of February 24, 2026, we had 289 full-time employees, of which 137 employees are engaged in research and development activities and 152 are engaged in general and administrative activities. Most of our employees are based in the U.S. and a majority are based in Massachusetts, however during 2025, we built out our U.S. operations field teams across the U.S. in preparation for commercialization. We continued to make targeted hires to enhance our capabilities and support a variety of functions and key initiatives in critical functions including research, development, technical

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operations, supply chain, commercial and G&A functions. We also hired our first employees in Dublin, Ireland in the supply chain and quality functions. We anticipate continuing to add depth and new capabilities in key areas of our business in 2026 and further expanding to Europe with key hires in operational and country leadership roles to support our infrastructure and overall anticipated growth. None of our employees are represented by a labor union or covered by a collective bargaining agreement, and we believe our relationship with our employees is good.

b. Career Development and Growth

We emphasize employee development and training. To empower employees to unleash their potential individually and as a team, we invest in our employees by providing development opportunities, and the necessary resources to support their success, including mentorship guidelines, professional coaching, management and leadership training, online learning subscriptions and access to industry events and conferences. The diversity of our employees and their skillsets also offers a unique opportunity for us to learn from each other’s experiences.

c. Compensation and Benefits

Our competitive compensation programs are designed to align the compensation of our employees with our performance and to provide the proper incentives to attract, retain and motivate employees to achieve superior results. The structure of our compensation programs balances earnings for both short-term and long-term performance. We provide employee salaries that are competitive within our industry based on position, skill level, experience and knowledge. Additionally, we offer both new hire equity and annual equity grants to our employees to align the interests of our employees with the company’s mission.

We are committed to providing comprehensive benefit options and it is our intention to offer benefits that will allow our employees and their families to live healthier and more secure lives. Some examples of the benefits we offer are: medical insurance including prescription drug benefits, dental insurance, vision insurance, accident insurance, life insurance, disability insurance, health savings accounts, flexible spending accounts, wellness programs, access to mental health support and benefits, identity theft insurance and pet insurance.

In addition to ensuring our compensation programs are equitable, we also strive to provide employees with valuable recognition for their contributions to our success. We have a reward & recognition program that aligns with our company values at all levels. Our rewards & recognition program begins with peer-to-peer recognition via an internal community board, and we continue to find ways to recognize the contributions of our employes.

d. Employee Engagement

We periodically conduct confidential employee engagement surveys to obtain feedback on a variety of topics, including culture, values, diversity, equity and inclusion, career development, employee satisfaction and tenure, and execution of our company strategy. These survey results are reviewed by our people managers so that we can continue to increase employee satisfaction and improve the well-being of our employees. We also engage in listening tours to both gain feedback and create opportunities for two-way dialogue. We actively strive to operationalize feedback provided by employees in ways that align with our business and culture. We are also committed to communication and transparency, using multiple forums and channels to allow for the sharing of appropriate, timely information to all employees.

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e. Health & Safety

Ensuring the safety and wellbeing of our employees and communities is of the utmost importance to us. We are dedicated to supporting and promoting a culture of safety by providing information, training, risk assessments and assisting with regulatory compliance. Our goal is to help provide a safe place for employees to work while achieving our goals.

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While we have encouraged our employees to spend more time on site, we recognize the on-going need for flexibility and our field-based workforce has grown as we prepare for commercialization. We’ve helped employees set up home offices, provided them access to tools to perform their jobs remotely, provided ergonomic assessments of their working

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environments, and helped them address IT connectivity. We’ve also found ways to continue to foster collaboration and community through virtual meetings and events that we would normally do in person.

f. Fostering Inclusion

We believe that fostering inclusion is a business imperative which supports and encourages individuals to show up as their whole selves. Investing in inclusionary efforts enhances culture and employee experience. Our ability to innovate and meet people’s needs is strongest when all voices are heard and valued.

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XIV.Facilities

Our corporate headquarters and operations are located in Cambridge, Massachusetts.

In November 2019, we entered into a lease of laboratory and office space at 301 Binney Street in Cambridge, Massachusetts and in 2021 we relocated our corporate headquarters to this location. The expiration date was originally in August 2025 and included an option to extend the term by two years. In May 2024, we entered into the First Amendment to the Lease to extend the term for approximately two years, commencing on August 19, 2025 with an option to extend the term by five years.

We believe that our facility at 301 Binney Street is adequate to meet our current needs, and that suitable additional space will be available as and when needed.

XVL. Legal Proceedings

From time to time, we may be involved in various claims and legal proceedings relating to claims arising out of our operations. We are not currently a party to any material legal proceedings.

XVIL. Website Access to Reports

We are subject to the informational requirements of the Exchange Act and are required to file annual, quarterly and current reports, proxy statements and other information with the SEC. You can read our SEC filings, including the registration statement, at the SEC’s website at www.sec.gov. We also maintain a website at www.scholarrock.com. You may access, free of charge, our annual reports on Form 10-K, quarterly reports on Form 10-Q, current reports on Form 8-K and any amendments to those reports, as soon as reasonably practicable after such material is electronically filed with, or furnished to, the SEC. The information that is posted on or is accessible through our website is not incorporated by reference into this Annual Report on Form 10-K and should not be considered part of this or any other report that we file with or furnish to the SEC.

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Item 1A. Risk Factors

Careful consideration should be given to the following risk factors, together with all other information set forth in this Annual Report, including our consolidated financial statements and related notes, and “Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations,” and in other documents that we file with the SEC, in evaluating Scholar Rock Holding Corporation and our subsidiaries (collectively, the “Company”, “we”, or “our”) and our business, before investing in our common stock. Investing in our common stock involves a high degree of risk. If any of the following risks and uncertainties actually occurs, our business, prospects, financial condition and results of operations could be materially and adversely affected. The market price of our common stock could decline if one or more of these risks or uncertainties were to occur, which may cause you to lose all or part of the money you paid to buy our common stock. The risk factors described below disclose both material and other risks, and are not intended to be exhaustive and are not the only risks facing the Company. New risk factors can emerge from time to time, and it is not possible to predict the impact that any factor or combination of factors may have on our business, prospects, financial condition and results of operations. Certain statements below are forward-looking statements. See “Special Note Regarding Forward-Looking Statements” in this Annual Report.

Summary of the Material Risks Associated with Our Business

Our business is subject to numerous risks and uncertainties that you should be aware of before making an investment decision, including those highlighted in the section entitled “Risk Factors.” These risks include, but are not limited to, the following:

Risks Related to Product Development, Regulatory Approval and Commercialization

| ● | The regulatory approval process for apitegromab in the U.S., EU and other jurisdictions will be lengthy, time-consuming and inherently unpredictable and we may fail to receive or be delayed in receiving regulatory approval of apitegromab, or we may receive regulatory approval for only a subset of SMA patients. The CRL received from the FDA in September 2025 will require us to resubmit the apitegromab BLA and our progress toward potential commercialization of apitegromab has been delayed. The CRL could impact the current review process of our MAA with the EMA, which could result in a delay or a resubmission of the MAA to the EMA.

| ● | We have never commercialized a product and are in the process of building and scaling our business for potential commercialization of apitegromab in the United States and Europe, including building our compliance, medical affairs and commercial organizations, which, if we are not able to do so successfully could negatively impact our business, including the potential for a successful commercialization of apitegromab.

| ● | Changes or disruptions at the FDA and other government agencies caused by funding cuts, government shutdowns, personnel reductions, substantial changes in leadership and policy, or other changes or disruptions to these agencies’ operations could prevent these agencies from performing functions on which the operation of our business relies, including the timely review and potential approval of our BLA when resubmitted, and any such disruptions and changes could negatively impact our business.

| ● | Unfavorable pricing and reimbursement decisions in the EU could significantly delay or limit patient access to apitegromab, if approved, and materially reduce our anticipated revenues. Even if we obtain marketing authorization, the EU health technology assessment bodies and national payors may impose price reductions, require additional clinical or real world evidence, restrict reimbursement, or deny coverage altogether. Pricing and reimbursement negotiations in the EU are often lengthy, highly uncertain, and subject to country by country requirements, reference pricing, budget impact assessments, and mandatory discounts. As a result, the commercial viability of apitegromab in the EU may be materially impacted.

| ● | Product development involves a lengthy and expensive process, with an uncertain outcome. We may incur additional costs or experience delays in completing, or ultimately be unable to complete, the development and commercialization of apitegromab, SRK-181, SRK-439, or any future product candidates. Many of the factors that cause, or lead to, a delay in the initiation or completion of clinical trials may also ultimately lead to the denial of regulatory approval or limit market acceptance of our product candidates.

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| ● | The results of preclinical studies and early-stage clinical trials may not be predictive of future results. Success of a product candidate in an early-stage clinical trial may not be replicated in later-stage clinical trials.

| ● | Interim, initial and preliminary results from our clinical trials that we announce or publish from time to time may change (e.g., from positive safety or efficacy results to poor or negative safety or efficacy results) as more patient data become available and are subject to additional audit, validation and verification procedures that could result in material changes in the final data.

| ● | We rely on third parties to conduct our clinical trials and to conduct certain aspects of our preclinical studies. If these third parties do not successfully carry out their contractual duties or meet expected deadlines or comply with legal and regulatory requirements, we may be delayed or unable to receive regulatory approval of or commercialize apitegromab, SRK-181, SRK-439 or any future product candidates, and our business could be materially harmed.

| ● | Preclinical development is uncertain. Our preclinical programs may experience delays or may never advance to clinical trials, which would adversely affect our ability to develop our product pipeline and receive regulatory approvals or commercialize these programs on a timely basis or at all, which would have an adverse effect on our business.

Risks Related to Our Business and Operations

| ● | Because we rely on a limited number of third-party manufacturing and supply partners, our supply of research and development, preclinical and clinical development materials, and, if approved, commercial materials, may become limited or interrupted or may not be of satisfactory quantity or quality.

| ● | Our reliance on third parties, such as manufacturers, third-party logistics providers, specialty distributors, specialty pharmacies, and patient service providers, may subject us to risks and may cause us to undertake substantial obligations, including financial obligations.

| ● | We will need to continue to grow our organization in certain areas, including our personnel, systems and relationships with third parties, in order to develop our drug candidates and we may experience difficulties in managing this growth.

| ● | Our executives and highly skilled technical and managerial personnel are critical to our business. If we have transition in management, lose key personnel, or if we fail to recruit additional highly skilled personnel, our ability to further develop apitegromab, SRK-181, SRK-439 and identify and develop new or next generation product candidates may be impaired.

| ● | Failure to comply with health care, privacy and data protection laws and regulations could lead to government or competent authority enforcement actions (which could include civil or criminal penalties), private litigation, and/or adverse publicity and could negatively affect our operation results and business.

Risks Related to Our Intellectual Property

| ● | Our success depends in part on our ability to protect our intellectual property. It is difficult and costly to protect our proprietary rights and technology, and we may not be able to ensure their protection.

| ● | Our commercial success depends in part on our ability to develop, manufacture, market and sell our product candidates and use our proprietary technologies without infringing the proprietary rights of third parties. Third-party claims of intellectual property infringement may prevent or delay our product discovery, development, and commercialization efforts.

Risks Related to Our Financial Condition and Capital Requirements

| ● | We have incurred net losses in every year since our inception and anticipate that we will continue to incur net losses in the future.

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| ● | We will require additional capital to fund our operations and if we fail to obtain necessary capital, we will not be able to complete the development and commercialization of apitegromab, SRK-181, SRK-439 and any future product candidates.

Risks Related to Our Common Stock

| ● | The price of our stock is volatile, and you could lose all or part of your investment.

Risks Related to Product Development, Regulatory Approval and Commercialization

The regulatory approval process for apitegromab in the U.S., EU and other jurisdictions will be lengthy, time-consuming and inherently unpredictable and we may fail to receive or be delayed in receiving regulatory approval of apitegromab, or we may receive regulatory approval for only a subset of SMA patients. The CRL received from the FDA in September 2025 will require us to resubmit the apitegromab BLA and our progress toward potential commercialization of apitegromab has been delayed. The CRL could impact the current review process of our MAA with the EMA, which could result in a delay or a resubmission of the MAA to the EMA.

The research, testing, manufacturing, labeling, approval, sale, import, export, marketing, promotion and distribution of drug products, including biologics, are subject to extensive regulation by the FDA in the U.S. and other regulatory authorities outside the U.S. We are not permitted to market any biological product in the U.S. until we receive a biologics license from the FDA. Prior to submitting the BLA to the U.S. FDA in January 2025 and submitting the MAA to the EMA in March 2025 for apitegromab as a treatment for patients with SMA, we had not submitted a BLA to the FDA or MAA to the EMA or similar marketing application to comparable foreign authorities. A BLA must include extensive preclinical and clinical data and supporting information to establish that the product candidate is safe, pure and potent for each desired indication. FDA, EMA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities’ approval of a new biologic or drug generally requires data from one or more adequate and well-controlled pivotal Phase 3 clinical trials of the biologic or drug in the relevant patient population. The FDA, EMA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities may disagree with the design or implementation of our clinical trials or our analysis or interpretation of data from preclinical studies or clinical trials, the results of our clinical trials may not meet the level of statistical significance or amount of data required for approval, regulatory authorities may not agree with the statistical methods we used to evaluate our clinical data, or we may be unable to demonstrate that apitegromab’s clinical and other benefits outweigh its safety risks. Even if the FDA, EMA, or other regulatory authorities were to grant approval for apitegromab in SMA, one or more of these regulatory authorities may determine that the approval should be limited to a subset b of SMA patients, which could restrict the commercial potential of apitegromab in SMA. A BLA to the FDA or MAA to the EMA must also include significant information regarding the chemistry, manufacturing, and controls for the product, and the manufacturing facilities must complete a successful pre-license inspection as well as certain key clinical sites conducting our clinical trials. The FDA, EMA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities may fail to approve the manufacturing processes or facilities of third-party manufacturers with which we contract for clinical and commercial supplies.

In September 2025, we received a CRL from the FDA citing observations identified during an FDA inspection of a third-party fill-finish facility. This facility was issued a Form 483 by the FDA in July 2025 and the inspection classification of this facility is OAI. The observations were related to the facility and were not specific to apitegromab. The CRL did not cite any other approvability concerns, including apitegromab’s efficacy and safety data or the third-party drug substance manufacturer. In November 2025, we completed an in-person Type A meeting with the FDA that included participation of representatives from the third-party fill-finish facility. Also in November 2025, the third-party fill-finish facility received a warning letter from the FDA and continues to work with the FDA to resolve the outstanding issues cited in the warning letter. We plan to resubmit the apitegromab BLA at such time after the facility resolves the cGMP deficiencies identified in the CRL, however, there can be no guarantee of the timing of the facility’s resolution of those deficiencies or that the FDA will approve apitegromab upon our resubmission of the BLA. The CRL has delayed our progress toward potential commercialization of apitegromab and we may be subject to additional risks such as a loss of our competitive advantage, increased litigation and other regulatory issues.

The CRL could also adversely affect the ongoing regulatory review of the apitegromab MAA by the EMA. As part of its review, the EMA has a mutual recognition agreement with the FDA, and we believe satisfactory resolution of the OAI classification will be necessary for MAA approval. The EMA may also require additional assurance regarding the

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suitability of manufacturing sites prior to approval which could result in a delay in review timelines. GMP non-compliance at the third-party fill-finish facility could, in the most adverse scenario, even result in a negative CHMP opinion and refusal of the MAA by the European Commission.

We have never commercialized a product and are in the process of building and scaling our business for potential commercialization of apitegromab in the United States and Europe, including building our compliance, medical affairs and commercial organizations, which, if we are not able to do so successfully could negatively impact our business, including the potential for a successful commercialization of apitegromab.

Although we are preparing our commercialization capabilities in anticipation of a potential approval and commercial launch of apitegromab in the United States and Europe, we have no prior sales or distribution experience and limited capabilities for marketing and market access. We expect to invest significant financial and management resources over time to establish compliance, medical affairs and commercial organizations for the marketing, sales and distribution of apitegromab in the United States and Europe, if approved in each jurisdiction, and other capabilities and infrastructure to support commercial operations. If we are unable to establish these commercial capabilities and infrastructure in a timely manner or to enter into agreements with third parties to market, sell, and/or distribute apitegromab if approved, we may be unable to complete a successful commercial launch. To the extent we enter into agreements with third parties, the revenue we receive may depend upon the efforts of such third parties, over which we may have limited or no control, and our revenue from product sales may be lower than if we had commercialized the products ourselves. We also face competition in our search for third parties to assist us with the distribution, sales and marketing of our products.

Furthermore, we intend to commercialize apitegromab in the United States and Europe initially, and globally, if approved. In order to do so, we must build, on a territory-by-territory basis, marketing, sales, distribution, managerial and other capabilities or make arrangements with third parties to perform these services, and we may not be successful in doing so.

Changes or disruptions at the FDA and other government agencies caused by funding cuts, government shutdowns, personnel reductions, substantial changes in leadership and policy, or other changes or disruptions to these agencies’ operations could prevent these agencies from performing functions on which the operation of our business relies, including the timely review and potential approval of our BLA, when resubmitted, and any such disruptions and changes could negatively impact our business.

The ability of the FDA and foreign regulatory authorities to review and or approve new products can be affected by a variety of factors, including government budget and funding levels, staffing levels, and statutory, regulatory, and policy changes, the FDA’s and foreign regulatory authorities' ability to hire and retain key personnel and accept the payment of user fees, and other events that may otherwise affect the FDA’s ability to perform routine functions. Average review times at the FDA and foreign regulatory authorities have fluctuated in recent years as a result. Disruptions at the FDA and other agencies, including substantial leadership, personnel, and policy changes, may also slow the time necessary for new drugs to be reviewed and/or approved by necessary government agencies, which would adversely affect our business. In 2025, the U.S. government has, among other measures, issued executive orders and undertaken reductions in force that have adversely impacted FDA staffing and resources. Such changes could significantly impact the ability of the FDA to timely review and take action on our regulatory submissions, which could have a material adverse effect on our business.

In addition, changes in the requirements and policies of the FDA and other regulatory agencies with jurisdiction over our products, including applicable pricing and reimbursement frameworks under federal healthcare programs, could affect the commercial viability of our products, create revenue uncertainty, and impact our ability to achieve profitability. Additionally, regulatory changes may introduce new challenges in obtaining FDA approval or navigating commercialization, and any delay in securing applicable regulatory approvals would adversely affect our business and prospects. These uncertainties could also present new challenges and/or opportunities as we navigate the resubmission of our BLA to the FDA and make other preparations for potential commercialization. Any delay in obtaining, or our

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inability to obtain, applicable regulatory approvals would delay or prevent commercialization of apitegromab and could materially adversely impact our business and prospects.

Product development involves a lengthy and expensive process, with an uncertain outcome. We may incur additional costs or experience delays in completing, or ultimately be unable to complete, the development and commercialization of apitegromab, SRK-181, SRK-439, or any future product candidates. Many of the factors that cause, or lead to, a delay in the initiation or completion of clinical trials may also ultimately lead to the denial of regulatory approval or limit market acceptance of our product candidates.

Before obtaining regulatory approvals for the commercial sale of any product candidates, we must demonstrate through extensive preclinical studies and clinical trials that our product candidates are safe and effective in humans. Clinical development is expensive and can take many years to complete, and its outcome is inherently uncertain, a clinical trial can fail at any stage of development. We may experience delays in initiating, progressing or completing our clinical trials. We may be unable to establish clinical endpoints that applicable regulatory authorities would consider clinically meaningful. Clinical trials may fail to meet their primary or secondary endpoints, raise safety concerns or generate mixed results. Differences in trial design between early-stage clinical trials and later-stage clinical trials make it difficult to extrapolate the results of earlier clinical trials to later clinical trials. Clinical data may not be sufficient to apply for and obtain regulatory approval on the timelines we expect or at all. Other decisions or actions of regulatory agencies may affect our plans, progress or results.

We also may experience numerous unforeseen events during, or as a result of, any clinical trials in process or any future clinical trials that we conduct that could delay or prevent our ability to receive marketing approval or commercialize apitegromab, SRK-181, SRK-439, or any future product candidates, including:

| ● | delay or inability to reach agreement with the FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities on acceptable clinical trial design, conduct or statistical analysis plan;

| ● | regulators, Institutional Review Boards (“IRBs”) or ethics committees may not authorize us or our investigators to commence a clinical trial or conduct a clinical trial at a prospective trial site;

| ● | we may experience delays in reaching, or fail to reach, agreement on acceptable terms with prospective trial sites and prospective CROs, the terms of which can be subject to extensive negotiation and may vary significantly among different CROs and trial sites;

| ● | clinical trials of any product candidates may fail to show safety and effectiveness, or produce negative or inconclusive results and we may decide, or regulators may require us, to conduct additional preclinical studies or clinical trials or we may decide to abandon product development programs;

| ● | the number of subjects required for clinical trials of any product candidates may be larger than we anticipate, enrollment in these clinical trials may be slower or more challenging than we anticipate or subjects may drop out of these clinical trials or fail to return for post treatment follow-up at a higher rate than we anticipate;

| ● | challenges in identifying or recruiting sufficient study sites or investigators for clinical trials;

| ● | our third-party contractors may fail to comply with regulatory requirements or meet their contractual obligations to us in a timely manner, or at all;

| ● | clinical study sites or clinical investigators may deviate from the clinical trial protocol or drop out of the trial, which may require that we add new clinical trial sites or investigators;

| ● | we may elect to, or regulators, IRBs, DSMBs, or ethics committees may recommend or require that we or our investigators, suspend or terminate clinical research or trials for various reasons, including noncompliance with regulatory requirements, a finding that the participants are being exposed to unacceptable health risks, undesirable side effects or unexpected characteristics, or reports from clinical testing of other therapies that raise safety or efficacy concerns about our product candidates;

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| ● | limitations on our or our CROs’ ability to access and verify clinical trial data captured at clinical study sites through monitoring and source document verification;

| ● | the cost of clinical trials of a product candidate may be greater than we anticipate;

| ● | the supply or quality of our product candidates or other materials necessary to conduct clinical trials of our product candidates may be insufficient or inadequate to initiate or complete a given clinical trial;

| ● | our product candidates may have undesirable side effects or other unexpected characteristics when used in a new disease indication or with products in a different class which may raise safety, efficacy or other concerns about our product candidate as a potential therapy in that new disease indication or other indications or its use with products in a different class;

| ● | our failure to establish an appropriate safety profile for a product candidate based on clinical or preclinical data for such product candidate and/or data emerging from other molecules in the same class as our product candidate;

| ● | the FDA, EMA or other regulatory authorities may require us to submit additional data, such as long-term toxicology studies, or change or impose other requirements before permitting us to initiate a clinical trial; and

| ● | evolution in the standard of care or changes in applicable governmental regulations or policies during the development of a product candidate that require amendments to ongoing clinical trials and/or the conduct of additional preclinical studies or clinical trials.

Many of the factors that cause, or lead to, a delay in the initiation or completion of clinical trials may also ultimately lead to the denial of regulatory approval or limit market acceptance of our product candidates. For example, we anticipate some of our future trials to, in part, utilize an open-label trial design, and our ongoing ONYX long-term extension study for apitegromab in patients from both the TOPAZ and SAPPHIRE trials utilizes an open-label trial design. An open-label trial is one where both the patient and investigator know whether the patient is receiving the test article or either an existing approved drug or placebo. Open-label trials are subject to various limitations that may exaggerate any therapeutic effect as patients in open-label studies are aware that they are receiving treatment. Open-label trials may be subject to a patient bias, for example, if patients perceive their symptoms to have improved merely due to their awareness of receiving an experimental treatment. Open-label trials also may be subject to an investigator bias where those assessing and reviewing the physiological outcomes of the clinical trials are aware of which patients have received treatment and may interpret the information of the treated group more favorably given this knowledge. The potential sources of bias in clinical trials as a result of open-label design may not be adequately mitigated and may cause any of our trials that utilize such design to fail and additional trials may be necessary to support future marketing applications. In addition, other types of trials (including randomized, double-blind, parallel arm studies), particularly if smaller in size or if limited to one study, are also subject to potential sources of bias and limitations that may exaggerate any therapeutic effect or falsely identify a positive efficacy signal, or conversely, fail to detect an efficacy signal when in fact there may actually be a positive therapeutic effect.

Our product development costs will increase if we experience delays in clinical testing or marketing approvals. We do not know whether any of our clinical trials will begin as planned, will need to be restructured or will be completed on schedule, or at all. Significant clinical trial delays could also shorten any periods during which we may have the exclusive right to commercialize our product candidates and may allow our competitors to bring products to market before we do, potentially impairing our ability to successfully commercialize our product candidates. Any delays in our clinical development programs may harm our business, financial condition and results of operations significantly.

Our clinical development strategy depends on the continued use and availability of certain third-party approved drug therapies.

Patients in ONYX, our long-term extension study for patients from both the TOPAZ and SAPPHIRE studies, and OPAL, our Phase 2 clinical trial of apitegromab in children under the age of two living with SMA, are receiving apitegromab in conjunction with an approved SMN targeted treatment. These patients are reliant on the continued use and availability of such treatments. If access to an approved SMN targeted treatment such as nusinersen or risdiplam

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becomes limited or is unavailable, we may be forced to pause or stop our ONYX or OPAL clinical trials, or the medical condition of patients may be affected which could negatively affect the efficacy and safety results for apitegromab in the trial or reduce the amount of data or confound the data from this trial. Any delay or suspension of our clinical trials would significantly delay our clinical development programs and harm our business, financial condition and results of operations.

The results or success of preclinical studies and early-stage clinical trials of our product candidates may not be predictive of future results or replicated in later preclinical studies or clinical trials of our product candidates in the same indications or other indications.

The results or success of preclinical studies and early-stage clinical trials of our product candidates may not be predictive of future results or replicated in later preclinical studies or later-stage clinical trials. Preclinical studies and early-stage clinical trials are primarily designed to study PK and PD, understand the side effects of product candidates, and evaluate various doses and dosing schedules. Our current or future product candidates may demonstrate different chemical, biological and pharmacological properties in patients than they do in laboratory studies or may interact with human biological systems in unforeseen or harmful ways. Product candidates in later-stages of clinical trials may fail to show desired pharmacological properties or produce positive safety and efficacy results despite having progressed through preclinical studies and early-stage clinical trials. Additionally, product candidates evaluated in one disease indication may interact in unforeseen or harmful ways in a patient population with a different disease indication than was previously studied. For example, apitegromab was evaluated in our Phase 3 SAPPHIRE clinical trial for the treatment of patients with Type 2 and Type 3 SMA and apitegromab was evaluated in our Phase 2 EMBRAZE proof-of-concept trial in combination with tirzepatide in obesity. Top-line data from each clinical trial have been released and apitegromab did not interact in any new ways despite the different patient population and disease indications studied in each trial. We cannot assure you that any future clinical trials of apitegromab, such as our Phase 2 FORGE clinical trial in patients with FSHD, or any of our other anti-myostatin antibodies will show positive results or interact in ways similarly to that which was previously studied in a different disease indication. There can be no assurance that any of our current or planned clinical trials will ultimately be successful or support further clinical development or registration of any of our product candidates.

Interim, initial, or preliminary results from our clinical trials that we announce or publish from time to time may change (e.g., from positive safety or efficacy results to poor or negative safety or efficacy results) as more patient data become available and are subject to additional audit, validation and verification procedures that could result in material changes in the final data.

Any interim, initial or preliminary data or results from clinical trials, including interim top-line results and other results published from our clinical trials may materially change as more patient data become available. Preliminary, initial, interim or top-line results also remain subject to audit, validation and verification procedures that may result in the final data being materially different from the data we previously published. As a result, interim, initial or preliminary data may not be predictive of final results and should be viewed with caution until the final data are available. We may also arrive at different conclusions, or considerations may qualify such results, once we have received and fully evaluated additional data. Differences between preliminary, initial or interim data and final data could adversely affect our business.

There is a high failure rate for drugs and biologics proceeding through clinical trials. A number of companies in the pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries have suffered significant setbacks in late-stage clinical development even after achieving promising results in earlier studies, and we cannot be certain that we will not face similar setbacks. Many drugs have failed to replicate efficacy and safety results in larger or more complex later stage trials. Moreover, preclinical and clinical data are often susceptible to varying interpretations and analyses, and many companies that believed their product candidates performed satisfactorily in preclinical studies and clinical trials nonetheless failed to obtain regulatory approval. If we fail to produce positive results in our ongoing and planned preclinical studies and clinical trials with apitegromab, SRK-181, or SRK-439 or if a regulatory authority interprets and analyzes the results as not positive, the development timeline and regulatory approval and commercialization prospects for our product candidates, and, correspondingly, our business and financial prospects, may be materially adversely affected.

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If we encounter difficulties enrolling patients in our clinical trials, our clinical development activities could be delayed or otherwise adversely affected.

We may experience difficulties in patient enrollment in our clinical trials for a variety of reasons. The timely completion of clinical trials in accordance with their protocols depends, among other things, on our ability to enroll a sufficient number of patients who remain in the trial until its conclusion. The enrollment of patients depends on many factors, including:

| ● | the patient eligibility and exclusion criteria defined in the protocol;

| ● | the size of the patient population required for analysis of the trial’s primary endpoints;

| ● | the willingness or availability of patients to participate in our trials;

| ● | the number and location of participating trial sites;

| ● | the proximity of patients to trial sites and any limitations on travel or access to trial sites;

| ● | the design of the trial;

| ● | our ability to recruit clinical trial investigators with the appropriate competencies and experience;

| ● | clinicians’ and patients’ perceptions as to the potential advantages and risks of the product candidate being studied in relation to other therapies;

| ● | our ability to obtain and maintain patient consents; and

| ● | the risk that patients enrolled in clinical trials will drop-out of the trials before completion of their involvement in the study.

For example, we are developing apitegromab for the treatment of people with FSHD, a rare disease, affecting an estimated 30,000 people in the U.S. and Europe. As a result, we may encounter difficulties enrolling patients in our clinical trials for apitegromab in FSHD due, in part, to the small size of this patient population. In addition, our clinical trials will compete with other clinical trials for product candidates that are in the same therapeutic areas as our product candidates, and this competition will reduce the number and types of patients available to us, because some patients who might have opted to enroll in our trials may instead opt to enroll in a trial being conducted by one of our competitors. Since the number of qualified clinical investigators is limited, we expect to conduct some of our clinical trials at the same clinical trial sites that some of our competitors use, which will reduce the number of patients who are available for our clinical trials in such clinical trial site. Additionally, patients may opt out of participation in clinical trials in favor of treatment with FDA approved therapies, or therapies approved in the EU or other foreign jurisdictions.

Delays in patient enrollment may result in increased costs or may affect the timing or outcome of our future clinical trials, which could prevent completion of these trials and adversely affect our ability to advance the development of our product candidates.

We rely on third parties to conduct our clinical trials and certain aspects of our preclinical studies. If these third parties do not successfully carry out their contractual duties or meet expected deadlines or comply with legal and regulatory requirements, we may be delayed or unable to receive regulatory approval of or commercialize apitegromab, SRK-181, SRK-439 or any future product candidates, and our business could be materially harmed.

We depend upon third parties to conduct certain aspects of our preclinical studies and to conduct our clinical trials, under agreements with universities, medical institutions, CROs, strategic partners and others. We often have to negotiate budgets and contracts with such third parties, and if we are unsuccessful or if the negotiations take longer than anticipated, this could result in delays to our development timelines and increased costs.

We rely especially heavily on third parties over the course of our clinical trials, and, as a result, have limited control over the clinical investigators and limited visibility into their day-to-day activities, including with respect to their individual

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employment policies or compliance with the approved clinical protocol. Nevertheless, we are responsible for ensuring that each of our trials is conducted in accordance with the applicable protocol, legal and regulatory requirements and scientific standards, and our reliance on third parties does not relieve us of our regulatory responsibilities. We and these third parties are required to comply with GCP requirements, which are regulations and guidelines enforced by the FDA and comparable foreign regulatory authorities for conducting, recording and reporting the results of clinical trials to assure that data and reported results are credible and accurate and that the rights, integrity and confidentiality of trial participants are protected. Regulatory authorities enforce these GCP requirements through periodic inspections of trial sponsors, clinical investigators and trial sites. If we or any of these third parties fail to comply with applicable GCP requirements, the clinical data generated in our clinical trials may be deemed unreliable and the FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities may require us to suspend or terminate these trials or perform additional preclinical studies or clinical trials before approving our marketing applications. We cannot be certain that, upon inspection, such regulatory authorities will determine that any of our clinical trials comply with the GCP requirements. We also are required to register certain ongoing clinical trials and post the results of completed clinical trials on a government-sponsored database, ClinicalTrials.gov, within specified timeframes. Failure to do so can result in civil monetary penalties, adverse publicity and civil and criminal sanctions. The FDA and National Institutes of Health have signaled the government’s willingness to begin enforcing these registration and reporting requirements against non-compliant clinical trial sponsors. As a result, our financial results and the commercial prospects for our product candidates would be harmed, our costs could increase and our ability to generate revenue could be delayed.

Our failure or any failure by these third parties to comply with these regulations would delay the regulatory approval process. Moreover, our business may be implicated if any of these third parties violate federal or state fraud and abuse or false claims laws and regulations or healthcare privacy and security laws.

Any third parties conducting aspects of our preclinical studies or clinical trials will not be our employees and, except for remedies that may be available to us under our agreements with such third parties, we cannot control whether they devote sufficient time and resources to our preclinical studies and clinical trials. The third party CROs and clinical trial sites that conduct our clinical trials may experience staffing shortages and the inability of a CRO or clinical trial site to maintain appropriate levels of competent staffing to support the demands of our clinical trials could negatively impact the execution of our clinical trials. These third parties may also have relationships with other commercial entities, including our competitors, for whom they may also be conducting clinical trials or other product development activities, which could affect their performance on our behalf. If these third parties do not successfully carry out their contractual duties or obligations or meet expected deadlines if they need to be replaced or if the quality or accuracy of the preclinical or clinical data they obtain is compromised due to the failure to adhere to our protocols or regulatory requirements or for other reasons, our development timelines, including clinical development timelines, may be extended, delayed or terminated and we may not be able to complete development of, receive regulatory approval of or successfully commercialize our product candidates.

If any of our relationships with these third-party CROs or others terminate, we may not be able to enter into arrangements with alternative CROs or other third parties or to do so on commercially reasonable terms. Switching or adding additional CROs involves additional cost and requires management time and focus. In addition, there is a natural transition period when a new CRO begins work. As a result, delays may occur, which can materially impact our ability to meet our desired development timelines. Though we carefully manage our relationships with our CROs, there can be no assurance that we will not encounter similar challenges or delays in the future or that these delays or challenges will not have a material adverse impact on our business, financial condition and prospects.

We have received Orphan Drug designation from the FDA for apitegromab for the treatment of SMA and the EC granted Orphan Medicinal Product designation to apitegromab for the treatment of SMA. We may seek Orphan Drug designation from regulatory authorities in other jurisdictions for apitegromab. We may not receive the requested designation or we may be unable to realize the benefits associated with Orphan Drug designation, including the potential for market exclusivity.

We have received Orphan Drug designation from the FDA for apitegromab for the treatment of SMA, and following the EMA’s Committee for Orphan Medicinal Products’ positive opinion, the EC designated apitegromab as an orphan medicinal product for the treatment of SMA. Even if we receive orphan drug exclusivity, the benefit of that exclusivity may be limited if we seek approval for an indication broader than the orphan-designated indication or could be revoked

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under certain circumstances, for example if the FDA later determines that the request for designation was materially defective or that we are unable to assure sufficient quantities of the product to meet the needs of patients with the rare disease or condition. Further, even if we receive orphan drug exclusivity for a product, that exclusivity may not effectively protect the product from competition during the exclusivity period because different drugs with different active moieties can be approved for the same condition, and the same product can be approved for different uses. Also, in the U.S., even after an orphan drug is approved and receives orphan drug exclusivity, the FDA may subsequently approve another drug for the same condition if the FDA concludes that the latter drug is not the same drug, including because it has been shown to be clinically superior to the drug with exclusivity because it is safer, more effective or makes a major contribution to patient care. In the EU, a marketing authorization may be granted to a similar medicinal product to an authorized orphan product for the same orphan indication if:

| ● | the second applicant can establish in its application that its medicinal product, although similar to the orphan medicinal product already authorized, is safer, more effective or otherwise clinically superior; or

| ● | the holder of the marketing authorization for the orphan medicinal product consents to a second medicinal product application; or

| ● | the holder of the marketing authorization for the original orphan medicinal product cannot supply sufficient quantities of orphan medicinal product.

| ● | See the sections of this Annual Report entitled, “Business — Government Regulation — US Biological Product Development — Orphan Drug Designation” and “Business – Government Regulation – European Union Drug Development — European Union Orphan Designation and Exclusivity.”

The FDA may reevaluate the Orphan Drug Act and its regulations and policies. We do not know if, when, or how the FDA may change the orphan drug regulations and policies in the future, and it is uncertain how any changes might affect our business. Depending on what changes the FDA may make to its orphan drug regulations and policies, our business could be adversely impacted.

We have received Rare Pediatric Disease designation for apitegromab for the treatment of SMA. However, a marketing application for apitegromab, if approved, may not meet the eligibility criteria for a rare pediatric disease priority review voucher.

We have received Rare Pediatric Disease designation for apitegromab for the treatment of SMA. Designation of a biologic as a product for a rare pediatric disease does not guarantee that a BLA for such biologic will meet the eligibility criteria for a rare pediatric disease priority review voucher at the time the application is approved. Pursuant to the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, in January 2025 we requested a rare pediatric disease priority review voucher in our BLA submission for apitegromab for the treatment of SMA and in March 2025 the FDA granted priority review of this BLA. The FDA may determine that the resubmitted BLA for apitegromab, if approved, does not meet the eligibility criteria for a rare pediatric disease priority review voucher, including for the following reasons:

| ● | SMA no longer meets the definition of a rare pediatric disease;

| ● | apitegromab contains an active ingredient (including any ester or salt of the active ingredient) that has been previously approved in an application;

| ● | the BLA does not rely on clinical data derived from studies examining a pediatric population and dosages of the drug intended for that population; or

| ● | the BLA seeks approval for a different adult indication than the rare pediatric disease for which apitegromab is designated.

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We have received Fast Track designation from the FDA and PRIME designation from the EMA for apitegromab for the treatment of SMA. We may seek Fast Track designation or Breakthrough Therapy designation from the FDA or PRIME designation from the EMA for certain of our current and future product candidates, and we may not be successful in receiving such designations, or if received, such designation may not actually lead to a faster development or regulatory review or approval process.

We may seek Fast Track designation, Breakthrough Therapy designation or PRIME designation for certain of our product candidates.

In May 2021, the FDA granted Fast Track designation for apitegromab for the treatment of SMA. The FDA has broad discretion whether or not to grant this designation, so even if we believe a particular product candidate is eligible for this designation, we cannot assure that the FDA would decide to grant it. Although the FDA has granted Fast Track designation for apitegromab in SMA, we may not experience a faster development process, review or approval compared to conventional FDA procedures. The FDA may withdraw Fast Track designation if it believes that the designation is no longer supported by data from our clinical development program.

Designation as a breakthrough therapy is within the discretion of the FDA. Accordingly, even if we believe one of our product candidates meets the criteria for designation as a breakthrough therapy, the FDA may disagree and instead determine not to make such designation. In any event, the receipt of a Breakthrough Therapy designation for a product candidate may not result in a faster development process, review or approval compared to products considered for approval under conventional FDA procedures and does not assure ultimate approval by the FDA. In addition, even if one or more of our product candidates qualify as breakthrough therapies, the FDA may later decide that the products no longer meet the conditions for qualification and rescind the breakthrough designation. See the sections of this Annual Report entitled, “Business — Government Regulation — US Biological Product Development — Expedited Development and Review Programs.”

In March 2021, the EMA granted PRIME designation to apitegromab for the treatment of SMA. PRIME is a scheme provided by the EMA to enhance support for the development of medicines that target an unmet medical need. The receipt of PRIME designation for apitegromab for the treatment of SMA may not result in a faster development process, review or approval compared to products considered for approval under conventional regulatory agency procedures and does not assure ultimate approval by the EMA.

See the section of this Annual Report entitled, “Business – Government Regulation – European Union Drug Development — European Union Expedited Review and Development.”

Receiving and maintaining regulatory approval of apitegromab in one jurisdiction does not mean that we will be successful in receiving or maintaining regulatory approval of apitegromab in other jurisdictions.

Receiving and maintaining regulatory approval of apitegromab in one jurisdiction does not guarantee that we will be able to receive or maintain regulatory approval in any other jurisdiction, but a failure or delay in receiving regulatory approval in one jurisdiction may have a negative effect on the regulatory approval process in other jurisdictions. Even if the FDA grants marketing approval of apitegromab, the EC, the competent authorities of EU Member States or comparable regulatory authorities in foreign jurisdictions may not approve the manufacturing, marketing and promotion of apitegromab in other countries. Approval procedures vary among jurisdictions and can involve requirements and administrative review periods different from, and greater than, those in the U.S., including additional preclinical studies or clinical trials, as clinical trials conducted in one jurisdiction may not be accepted by regulatory authorities in other jurisdictions. In many jurisdictions outside the U.S., apitegromab must be approved for reimbursement before it can be approved for sale in that jurisdiction. In some cases, the price that we intend to charge for our products is also subject to approval.

We may also submit marketing applications in other countries. Regulatory authorities in jurisdictions outside of the U.S. have requirements for approval of apitegromab with which we must comply prior to marketing in those jurisdictions. Receiving foreign regulatory approvals and compliance with foreign regulatory requirements could result in significant delays, difficulties and costs for us and could delay or prevent the introduction of apitegromab in certain countries. If we

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fail to comply with the regulatory requirements in international markets and/or receive applicable marketing approvals, our target market will be reduced and our ability to realize the full market potential of apitegromab will be harmed.

Even if we receive regulatory approval of apitegromab, we will be subject to ongoing regulatory obligations and continued regulatory review, which may result in significant additional expense and we may be subject to penalties if we fail to comply with regulatory requirements or experience unanticipated problems with apitegromab.

If apitegromab is approved, we will be subject to ongoing regulatory requirements, including requirements related to manufacturing, labeling, packaging, storage, advertising, promotion, sampling, record-keeping, import, export, conduct of post-marketing studies and submission of safety, efficacy and other post-marketing information. The safety and efficacy profile of apitegromab will continue to be closely monitored by the FDA and comparable foreign regulatory authorities. In addition, we will be subject to continued compliance with current cGMP and GCP requirements for any clinical trials that we conduct post-approval.

Manufacturers and manufacturers’ facilities are required to comply with extensive FDA, EU and comparable foreign regulatory authority requirements, including ensuring that quality control and manufacturing procedures conform to cGMP regulations. As such, we and our contract manufacturers will be subject to periodic review and inspections to assess compliance with cGMP and adherence to commitments made in any BLA or other marketing application and previous responses to inspection observations. Accordingly, we and others with whom we work must continue to expend time, money, and effort in all areas of regulatory compliance, including manufacturing, production and quality control.

Any regulatory approvals that we receive for apitegromab may be subject to limitations on the approved uses for which the product may be marketed or contain requirements for potentially costly post-market testing, including Phase 4 clinical trials and surveillance to monitor the safety and efficacy of apitegromab.

Later discovery of previously unknown problems with apitegromab, including adverse events of unanticipated severity or frequency, or with our third-party manufacturers or manufacturing processes, or failure to comply with regulatory requirements may result in revisions to the approved labeling to add new safety information; imposition of post-market studies or clinical trials to assess new safety risks; or imposition of distribution restrictions or other restrictions under a REMS program. Other potential consequences include, among other things:

| ● | restrictions on the marketing or manufacturing of apitegromab, withdrawal of apitegromab from the market or voluntary or mandatory product recalls;

| ● | fines, warning letters, untitled letters or holds on clinical trials;

| ● | refusal by the FDA to approve pending applications or supplements to approved applications filed by us or suspension or revocation of license approvals;

| ● | product seizure or detention or refusal to permit the import or export of apitegromab; and

| ● | permanent injunctions and consent decrees, including the imposition of civil or criminal penalties.

The FDA strictly regulates marketing, labeling, advertising, and promotion of products that are placed on the market. Products may be promoted only for their approved indications and in a manner consistent with their FDA-approved labeling. The FDA and other agencies actively enforce the laws and regulations prohibiting the promotion of unapproved uses and a company that is found to have improperly promoted unapproved uses may be subject to significant liability.

We cannot predict the likelihood, nature or extent of government regulation that may arise from future legislation or administrative action, either in the U.S. or abroad. In addition, the U.S. Supreme Court’s July 2024 decision to overturn established case law giving deference to regulatory agencies’ interpretations of ambiguous statutory language has introduced uncertainty regarding the extent to which the FDA’s regulations, policies and decisions may become subject to increasing legal challenges, delays, and/or changes. If we are slow or unable to adapt to changes in existing requirements or the adoption of new requirements or policies, or if we are not able to maintain regulatory compliance, we may face enforcement action and our business may be harmed.

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Even if apitegromab receives marketing approval, it may fail to achieve the degree of market acceptance by physicians, patients, third-party payors and others in the medical community necessary for commercial success.

If apitegromab receives marketing approval it may nonetheless fail to gain sufficient market acceptance by physicians, patients, third-party payors, and others in the medical community. There may be delays in getting apitegromab, if approved, on hospital or insurance formularies, or there may be limitations on coverage in the early stages of commercialization for newly approved drugs. If apitegromab is approved but fails to achieve market acceptance among hospitals, physicians, patients or health care payors, we will not be able to generate significant revenues and we may not become profitable, which would have a material adverse effect on our business, prospects, financial condition and results of operations. For example, doctors may deem it sufficient to treat patients with SMA with an SMN-targeted treatment such as nusinersen or risdiplam, and therefore will not be willing to utilize apitegromab in conjunction with such SMN-targeted treatment. The degree of market acceptance of apitegromab, if approved for commercial sale, will depend on a number of factors, including:

| ● | the efficacy and safety of apitegromab as demonstrated in clinical trials;

| ● | the indications for which apitegromab is approved;

| ● | efficacy and potential advantages compared to alternative treatments;

| ● | the ability to obtain sufficient third-party coverage and adequate reimbursement;

| ● | the amount, scope and nature of the clinical data (and other forms of data) available;

| ● | the ability to offer apitegromab, if approved, for sale at competitive prices;

| ● | the timing of market introduction of apitegromab as well as competitive products;

| ● | convenience and ease of administration compared to alternative treatments;

| ● | the willingness of the target patient population to try new therapies and of physicians to prescribe these therapies;

| ● | the strength of marketing and distribution support; and

| ● | the prevalence and severity of any side effects.

If we are unable to establish sales and marketing capabilities or enter into agreements with third parties to sell and market apitegromab in the EU, we may not be successful in commercializing apitegromab if and when it is approved.

​

We anticipate a decision from the EMA in mid-2026 and we have recently begun to build our sales or marketing infrastructure in Europe. We have limited experience in the sale, marketing or distribution of pharmaceutical products. To achieve commercial success for apitegromab, if approved, for which we retain sales and marketing responsibilities, we must continue to develop a sales and marketing organization and/or outsource certain functions to third parties, including third party distributors.

​

There are risks involved both with establishing our own sales and marketing capabilities and with entering into arrangements with third parties to perform these services. If the commercial launch of a product candidate for which we recruit a sales force and establish marketing capabilities is delayed or does not occur for any reason, we would have prematurely or unnecessarily incurred these commercialization expenses. This may be costly, and our investment would be lost if we cannot retain or reposition our sales and marketing personnel.

​

Factors that may inhibit our efforts to commercialize apitegromab on our own in Europe include:

| ● | our ability to recruit and retain adequate numbers of effective sales and marketing personnel;

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| ● | the ability of sales personnel to obtain access to physicians or educate adequate numbers of physicians on the benefits of prescribing apitegromab; and

| ● | unforeseen costs and expenses associated with creating an independent sales and marketing organization.

​

If we enter into arrangements with third parties to perform sales and marketing services, our product revenue or the profitability of these product revenue to us may be lower than if we were to market and sell apitegromab ourselves. In addition, we may not be successful in entering into arrangements with third parties to sell and market apitegromab or may be unable to do so on terms that are favorable to us. We may have little control over such third parties, and any of them may fail to devote the necessary resources and attention to sell and market apitegromab effectively. If we do not establish sales and marketing capabilities successfully, either on our own or in collaboration with third parties, we will not be successful in commercializing apitegromab.

Competing therapies may exist or could emerge that adversely affect the amount of revenue we are able to generate from the sale of apitegromab, if approved, or any of our future product candidates, if successfully developed and approved.

The biopharmaceutical industry is highly competitive. There are many public and private companies, universities, governmental agencies and other research organizations actively engaged in the research and development of products that may be similar to our product candidates or address similar markets. If we are successful in developing apitegromab, it is probable that the number of companies seeking to develop products and therapies similar to our products candidates or targeting similar indications will increase. Many of our potential competitors, alone or with their strategic partners, have substantially greater financial, technical and human resources than we do, and significantly greater experience in the discovery and development of product candidates, obtaining FDA and other regulatory approvals of treatments and the commercialization of those treatments. Mergers and acquisitions in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical industries may result in even more resources being concentrated among a smaller number of our competitors. We expect competition in the indications we are pursuing will focus on efficacy, safety, convenience, availability, and price. The commercial opportunity for apitegromab, if approved, could be reduced or eliminated if our competitors develop and commercialize products that are perceived to be safer, more effective, have fewer or less severe side effects, are more convenient or are less expensive than apitegromab. Our competitors also may obtain FDA or other regulatory approval for their products more rapidly than we may obtain approval for ours, which could result in our competitors establishing a strong market position before we are able to enter the market.

Preclinical development is uncertain. Our preclinical programs may experience delays or may never advance to clinical trials, which would adversely affect our ability to develop our product pipeline and receive regulatory approvals or commercialize these programs on a timely basis or at all, which would have an adverse effect on our business.

Before we can commence clinical trials for any product candidate, we must complete extensive preclinical studies that support our planned INDs in the U.S., or similar applications in other jurisdictions. We cannot be certain of the timely completion or outcome of our preclinical studies or of the timing of any planned IND submission to the FDA or similar applications in other jurisdictions, and cannot predict if the FDA, EMA or other regulatory authorities will accept our proposed clinical programs or if the outcome of our preclinical studies will ultimately support the further development of our programs. As a result, we cannot be sure that we will be able to submit INDs or similar applications for the clinical development of our preclinical programs on the timelines we expect, if at all, and we cannot be sure that submission of INDs or similar applications will result in the FDA, the competent authorities and/or ethics committees in the EU Member States or other regulatory authorities allowing clinical trials to begin.

Conducting preclinical testing can be a lengthy, time-consuming and expensive process. The time required for such testing may vary substantially according to the type, complexity and novelty of the program, and can be several years or more per program. Delays associated with programs for which we are conducting preclinical testing and studies may cause us to incur additional operating expenses. We also may be affected by delays associated with the preclinical testing and studies of certain programs that are the responsibility of our collaborators or our potential future collaborators over which we have limited or no control. The commencement and rate of completion of preclinical studies for a product

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candidate may be delayed by many factors, including, for example, challenges in reaching consensus with regulatory agencies regarding the scope of the necessary preclinical study program and/or appropriate preclinical study designs.

Risks Related to Our Business and Operations

Because we rely on a limited number of third-party manufacturing and supply partners, our supply of research and development, preclinical and clinical development materials, and, if approved, commercial materials, may become limited or interrupted or may not be of satisfactory quantity or quality.

We have limited experience manufacturing our product candidates on a commercial scale. We rely on a limited number of third-party contract manufacturers to manufacture all of our clinical trial product supplies and, if approved, all of our commercial product supplies, including all of our drug substance, fill-finish, labeling, and packaging. We do not own our own manufacturing facilities for producing any clinical trial or commercial product supplies. Our supply chain also depends on a limited number of suppliers for critical raw materials and components (including container closure systems), and any disruption, quality issue, or shortage could delay manufacturing or regulatory approvals. There can be no assurance that our preclinical, clinical development, and, if approved, commercial product supplies will not be limited or interrupted due to impacts to our third-party contract manufacturers. For example, we rely on a single source supplier for the drug substance and fill-finish manufacture of apitegromab, SRK-181 and SRK-439. We are advancing activities at a second US-based fill-finish facility to strengthen supply continuity and support future commercial demand of apitegromab. Any replacement of our current drug substance contract manufacturer or fill-finish contract manufacturer would require significant resources, lead time and expertise because there may be a limited number of qualified replacements. In addition, our ability to procure sufficient supplies for the development of apitegromab, SRK-181, SRK-439 or future product candidates could be impacted by factors outside of our control such as current macroeconomic and geopolitical events, the changing rates of inflation and interest rates and tariff policies. We have no direct control over our contract manufacturers’ ability to maintain adequate quality control, quality assurance and qualified personnel. Furthermore, all of our third-party contract manufacturers supply and/or manufacture materials or products for other companies, which exposes our third-party contract manufacturers to regulatory risks for the production of such materials and products. As a result, failure to satisfy the regulatory requirements for the production of those materials and products may affect the regulatory clearance of our contract manufacturers’ facilities generally.

For example, in September 2025, we received a CRL from the FDA citing observations identified during an FDA inspection of a third-party fill-finish facility. This facility was issued a Form 483 by the FDA in July 2025 and the inspection classification of this facility is OAI. The observations were related to the facility and were not specific to apitegromab. In November 2025, we completed an in-person Type A meeting with the FDA that included participation of representatives from the third-party fill-finish facility. Also in November 2025, the third-party fill-finish facility received a warning letter from the FDA and continues to work with the FDA to resolve the outstanding issues cited in the warning letter.

The manufacturing process for a product candidate is subject to FDA and foreign regulatory authority review. Suppliers and manufacturers must meet applicable manufacturing requirements and undergo rigorous facility and process validation tests required by regulatory authorities in order to comply with regulatory standards, such as cGMP. In the event that any of our manufacturers fails to comply with such requirements or to perform its obligations to us in relation to quality, timing or otherwise, or if our supply of components or other materials becomes limited or interrupted for other reasons, we may be forced to internalize certain activities or rapidly onboard alternative third-party manufacturing capacity, for which we currently do not have the capabilities or resources, or enter into an agreement with another third-party, which we may not be able to do on reasonable terms, if at all. In some cases, the technical skills or technology required to manufacture our product candidates may be unique or proprietary to the original manufacturer and we may have difficulty transferring such skills or technology to another third-party and a feasible alternative may not exist. These factors would increase our reliance on the original manufacturer or require us to obtain a license from such manufacturer in order to have another third-party manufacture our product candidates. If we must change manufacturers for any reason, we may be required to qualify and validate a new manufacturer’s facilities, processes and quality systems for compliance with applicable regulatory requirements, including cGMP. We may also need to conduct manufacturing comparability studies to demonstrate that any new manufacturing process produces product consistent with specifications previously submitted to the FDA or other regulatory authorities. These activities could result in delays and

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increased costs and could negatively affect our ability to develop and commercialize our product candidates in a timely manner or within budget.

We expect to continue to rely on third-party manufacturers for commercial supplies of drug substance, drug product, fill-finish, and packaged and labeled product for apitegromab, if we receive regulatory approval. We do not have long-term supply agreements in place with many of our contract manufacturers, and each batch for our product candidates is individually contracted through a purchase order governed by master service and quality agreements. If any of these manufacturers are unwilling to or unable to supply adequate quantities of product on acceptable terms or timelines, or are unable to comply with cGMP or other applicable requirements, we may be required to qualify and onboard alternative suppliers, which could result in delays to clinical development, regulatory submissions or approvals, or commercialization.

Failure to maintain compliance with cGMP can result in regulatory action against our third-party manufacturers, including FDA sanctions, which could disrupt our manufacturing and supply chain and lead to delays in our clinical development programs, regulatory submissions or approvals, or commercial supply, if approved. In addition, delays in securing or maintaining manufacturing capacity for drug substance, fill-finish, labeling and packaging, or failures by our contract manufacturers or suppliers to perform as required, could delay clinical trials, regulatory filings, or commercial launches, which could negatively affect our business.

Our reliance on third parties, such as manufacturers, third-party logistics providers, specialty distributors, specialty pharmacies, and patient service providers, may subject us to risks and may cause us to undertake substantial obligations, including financial obligations.

To conduct later-stage clinical trials and, if approved, produce commercial product, we will need to manufacture our product candidates in larger quantities and at appropriate quality standards. We rely on third-party contract manufacturers to scale our manufacturing processes for our clinical programs, and if approved, for commercial supply. We and our manufacturing partners may be unable to increase manufacturing capacity in a timely or cost-effective manner, and quality control issues may arise during process scale-up, technology transfer, or commercial production. If we, or any manufacturing partners, are unable to scale manufacturing of our product candidates in sufficient quantity or quality, development activities, clinical trials, regulatory submissions, or approvals, or commercial launch and supply could be delayed, disrupted, or become infeasible, which could materially affect our business. In September 2025, we received a CRL from the FDA for the apitegromab BLA citing observations identified during an FDA inspection of a third-party fill-finish facility. The facility received a Form 483 in July 2025, the facility was classified as OAI and in November 2025 received a warning letter from the FDA. The observations were related to the facility and were not specific to apitegromab.

Our reliance on third-party logistics providers, specialty distributors, specialty pharmacies, and patient services providers may subject us to risks that could impact the commercialization and patient access to apitegromab. If apitegromab is approved, we expect to use limited distribution agreements, which could concentrate supply with a small number of specialty pharmacies, increasing the risk of distribution disruptions, capacity constraints, and gaps in patient access if these partners fail to perform. Additionally, third parties manage high-touch patient support, reimbursement processing, and copay assistance, and any failures in these areas could lead to delays in initiation of treatment, coverage denials, and financial barriers for patients. Additionally, challenges such as disruptions in logistics, product-handling or quality-control issues, cybersecurity or privacy incidents, licensing or other regulatory non-compliance, or delays in onboarding key distribution partners may arise and may cause us to undertake substantial obligations, including financial obligations. If we or our third-party distribution service providers fail to scale and manage commercial distribution operations efficiently, the launch, commercialization, or continued supply of apitegromab may be delayed or compromised, which could significantly harm our business, reputation, and financial results.

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We are currently operating in a period of economic uncertainty and capital markets disruption, which has been significantly impacted by geopolitical instability, ongoing military conflicts, new regulatory activities and economic policies, high inflation and interest rates and the imposition of tariffs, other trade barriers and retaliatory countermeasures, any of which could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations.

U.S. and global markets have recently been experiencing volatility and disruption caused by economic uncertainty, including as a result of geopolitical instability, ongoing military conflicts, new regulatory activities and economic policies, and high inflation and interest rates. We are continuing to monitor global capital markets and assessing the potential impact of these factors on our business, including the impact on the supply chains we rely on for the manufacture of apitegromab, SRK-181, SRK-439, and any other current or future product candidates.

Although, to date, our business has not been materially impacted by the events described above, geopolitical tensions, or record inflation, it is impossible to predict the extent to which our operations will be impacted in the short and long term, or the ways in which such matters may impact our business. The extent and duration of such ongoing military conflicts, geopolitical tensions, record inflation and resulting market disruptions are impossible to predict but could be substantial. Any such disruptions may also magnify the impact of other risks we face.

Further, there have been, and may continue to be, significant changes to U.S. trade policies, sanctions, legislation, treaties and tariffs, including, but not limited to, trade policies and tariffs affecting products from outside of the U.S. The extent and duration of increased tariffs and the resulting impact on general economic conditions and on our business are uncertain and depend on various factors, such as negotiations between the U.S. and affected countries, the responses of other countries or regions, exemptions or exclusions that may be granted, availability and cost of alternative sources of supply, and demand in affected markets. While many of our supply chain and manufacturing activities occur within the U.S., we rely on globally sourced raw materials, components, and consumables. As a result, changes in trade policies, including the imposition of tariffs, export restrictions, or other geopolitical restrictions could result in increased costs or cause delays in the procurement of necessary materials or services. Any such disruptions in the global supply chain caused by macroeconomic events and conditions could adversely affect the development, testing and clinical trials of apitegromab, SRK-181, SRK-439, and any future product candidates, or it may be delayed or infeasible, and regulatory approval or commercial launch of any resulting product may be delayed or not obtained, which could significantly harm our business.

We will need to continue to grow our organization in certain areas, including our personnel, systems and relationships with third parties, in order to develop and potentially commercialize our product candidates, and we may experience difficulties in managing this growth.

As our clinical development plans and commercialization strategies continue to develop and expand, we expect we will need to hire additional managerial, clinical development, scientific, regulatory, commercial, and administrative personnel. Our ability to compete in the highly competitive biotechnology industry depends upon our ability to attract and retain highly qualified specialized personnel. As apitegromab approaches commercialization globally, we will also need to hire sales, marketing and other commercial personnel in the new markets we plan to enter. Future growth would impose significant added responsibilities on members of management, including:

| ● | identifying, recruiting, integrating, maintaining and motivating additional employees;

| ● | managing our development efforts effectively, including the clinical and regulatory review process for apitegromab, SRK-181, SRK-439, and any future product candidates, while complying with our contractual obligations to contractors and other third parties; and

| ● | improving our operational, financial and management controls, reporting systems and procedures.

Our future financial performance and our ability to commercialize apitegromab, if approved, will depend, in part, on our ability to effectively manage any future growth, and our management may also have to divert a disproportionate amount of its attention away from day-to-day activities in order to devote a substantial amount of time to managing these growth activities.

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We currently rely, and for the foreseeable future will continue to rely, in substantial part on third parties, advisors and consultants to provide certain services, including CROs, contract manufacturers and companies focused on antibody development and discovery activities. There can be no assurance that the services of third parties, advisors and consultants will continue to be available to us on a timely basis when needed, or that we can find qualified replacements. In addition, if we are unable to effectively manage our outsourced activities or if the quality, accuracy or quantity of the services provided is compromised for any reason, our preclinical studies and clinical trials may be extended, delayed or terminated, and we may not be able to receive, or may be substantially delayed in receiving, regulatory approval of apitegromab, SRK-181, SRK-439 or future product candidates or otherwise advance our business. There can be no assurance that we will be able to manage our existing consultants or find other competent outside contractors and consultants on economically reasonable terms, or at all.

We may not be able to attract or retain qualified management and scientific personnel in the future due to the intense competition for a limited number of qualified personnel in the biopharmaceutical space. In this highly competitive market, there may be increased costs to attract and retain qualified personnel. Many of the other pharmaceutical companies that we compete against for qualified personnel have greater financial resources, different risk profiles and a longer history in the industry than we do. They also may provide more diverse opportunities and better chances for career advancement. Some of these characteristics may be more appealing to high quality candidates than what we have to offer. If we are not able to offer competitive compensation or appealing opportunities for high quality candidates, we may not be able to attract or retain qualified candidates and personnel. If we are not able to effectively expand our organization by hiring new employees and expanding our groups of consultants and contractors, we may not be able to successfully implement the tasks necessary to further develop and commercialize apitegromab and, accordingly, may not achieve our research, development and commercialization goals.

In addition, from time to time, there may be changes in our executive or senior management team that may be disruptive to our business. If our teams fail to execute our plans and strategies, including as a result of executive transitions, our business, financial condition, and results of operations could be adversely affected.

Our executives and highly skilled technical and managerial personnel are critical to our business. If we have transition in management, lose key personnel, or if we fail to recruit additional highly skilled personnel, our ability to further develop and potentially commercialize apitegromab, SRK-181 and SRK-439 and identify and develop new or next generation product candidates may be impaired.

Our performance substantially depends on the performance of our management team. Any transition or loss of the services of any of our executives or highly skilled technical and managerial personnel could have a disruptive impact on our ability to implement our strategy and impede the achievement of our research, development and commercialization objectives. In addition, these transitions or departures could cause us to incur increased operating expenses, divert senior management resources in searching for replacements, or otherwise have a material adverse effect on our business, internal controls, financial condition and results of operations. Management transition inherently causes some loss of institutional knowledge, which can negatively affect strategy and operational execution during this phase. If we have additional changes to our executives or highly skilled technical and managerial personnel, we may be unable to successfully manage and grow our business, and our results of operations, execution of corporate goals, internal controls and financial condition could suffer as a result. The unplanned loss of the services of our executives or other personnel also could harm our reputation.

Our internal computer systems, or those used by our contract research organizations, or other contractors or consultants, may fail or suffer security breaches, incidents or compromises.

We have outsourced significant parts of our IT and business infrastructure to third-party providers, and we currently use these providers to perform business critical IT and business services for us. Despite the implementation of security measures, our computer systems, whether they are managed by us directly or by the third parties with whom we contract, and those of our existing and future CROs, and other contractors and consultants are vulnerable to damage from computer viruses and unauthorized access. While we have not experienced any such material system failure or security breach to date, if such an event were to occur and cause interruptions in our operations, it could result in a material disruption of our development programs and our business operations. Our increased reliance on personnel working from home may increase our cyber security risk, create data accessibility concerns, and make us more susceptible to

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workforce and communication disruptions, any of which could adversely impact our business operations or delay necessary interactions with local and federal regulators, ethics committees, manufacturing sites, research or clinical trial sites and other agencies and contractors. For example, the loss of preclinical or clinical data could result in delays in our regulatory approval efforts and significantly increase our costs to recover or reproduce the data. Likewise, we rely on third parties for the manufacture of apitegromab, SRK-181 and SRK-439 and to conduct preclinical studies and clinical trials, and similar events relating to their computer systems could also have a material adverse effect on our business. To the extent that any disruption or security breach were to result in a loss of, or damage to, our data or applications, or inappropriate disclosure of confidential or proprietary information, we could incur liability and the further development and commercialization of apitegromab, SRK-181, SRK-439 and future product candidates could be delayed.

As a company that uses IT systems, our systems may be subject to cyber-attacks, incidents or compromises. Due to the nature of some of these attacks, there is a risk that they may remain undetected for a period of time. While we have invested in the protection of data and information technology, our efforts may not prevent service interruptions or security breaches (e.g., ransomware attacks and social engineering attacks (phishing)). Like other companies in our industry, we, and our third-party vendors, have experienced threats and cybersecurity incidents relating to our information technology systems and infrastructure. We maintain cyber liability insurance; however, this insurance may not be sufficient to cover the financial, legal, business, or reputational losses, including regulatory fines, that may result from an interruption or breach of our systems.

Our employees, independent contractors, consultants, commercial partners, vendors and distributors may engage in misconduct or other improper activities, including noncompliance with regulatory standards and requirements.

We are exposed to the risk of employee fraud or other illegal activity by our employees, independent contractors, consultants, commercial partners and vendors. Misconduct by these parties could include intentional, reckless and/or negligent conduct that fails to comply with the laws and regulations of the FDA, EU Member States, EMA, MHRA and other similar foreign regulatory bodies; provide true, complete and accurate information to the FDA, EMA and other similar foreign regulatory bodies; comply with manufacturing standards we have established; comply with healthcare fraud and abuse laws in the U.S. and similar foreign fraudulent misconduct laws; or report financial information or data accurately or to disclose unauthorized activities to us. If we receive FDA approval, EC approval or approval from other foreign regulatory bodies of apitegromab and begin commercializing that product in the U.S. or in such other jurisdictions, our potential exposure under such laws will increase significantly, and our costs associated with compliance with such laws are also likely to increase. These laws may impact, among other things, our current activities with principal investigators and research patients, as well as proposed and future sales, marketing and education programs. We have adopted a code of business conduct and ethics, but it is not always possible to identify and deter misconduct by our employees, independent contractors, consultants, commercial partners and vendors, and the precautions we take to detect and prevent this activity may not be effective in controlling unknown or unmanaged risks or losses or in protecting us from governmental investigations or other actions or lawsuits stemming from a failure to comply with these laws or regulations. If any actions are instituted against us and we are not successful in defending ourselves or asserting our rights, those actions could result in the imposition of civil, criminal and administrative penalties, damages, monetary fines, individual imprisonment, disgorgement, possible exclusion from participation in government healthcare programs, additional reporting obligations and oversight if we become subject to a corporate integrity agreement or other agreement to resolve allegations of non-compliance with these laws, contractual damages, reputational harm, diminished profits and future earnings and the curtailment of our operations, any of which could adversely affect our ability to operate our business, financial condition and results of operations.

Ongoing healthcare legislative and regulatory reform measures may have a material adverse effect on our business and results of operations.

Changes in statutes, regulations or the interpretation of existing statutes or regulations could impact our business in the future by requiring, for example: (i) changes to our manufacturing arrangements; (ii) additions or modifications to product labeling; (iii) the recall or discontinuation of our products; (iv) additional record-keeping requirements; or (v) changes to our pricing arrangements, or coverage of or reimbursement for our products. If any such changes were to be imposed, they could adversely affect the profitability and operation of our business. See the sections of this Annual Report entitled, “Business — Government Regulation — Current and Future Healthcare Reform Legislation” and “Business – Government Regulation – Coverage and Reimbursement.”

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It is possible healthcare reform measures may be adopted in the future that may result in additional reductions in Medicare or other healthcare funding, more rigorous coverage criteria, or new payment methodologies or otherwise affect the prices we may obtain for any of our product candidates for which we may receive regulatory approval. Any reduction in reimbursement from Medicare or other government programs may result in a similar reduction in payments from commercial payors. We cannot predict the reform initiatives that may be adopted in the future or whether initiatives that have been adopted will be modified or invalidated. The continuing health care reform initiatives efforts of the government, insurance companies, managed care organizations and other payers of health care services to contain or reduce costs of health care may adversely affect the demand for any product candidates for which we may obtain regulatory approval, our ability to set a price that we believe is fair for our products, our ability to obtain coverage and reimbursement approval for a product, our ability to generate revenues and achieve or maintain profitability; and the level of taxes that we are required to pay.

In addition, federal and state efforts to impose new restrictions on manufacturer and third-party patient assistance programs could limit the availability or scope of these support services. Any such restrictions could reduce patient access to our products, which may materially and adversely affect our sales, business, and financial condition. Furthermore, patient support programs continue to face increased scrutiny from enforcement authorities. It is possible that regulators could determine that certain aspects of our programs do not comply with applicable healthcare fraud and abuse laws, including by viewing certain support services as improper inducements. Any such determination could have a significant adverse impact on our business, including the imposition of civil, criminal, or administrative penalties, and, in severe cases, exclusion from participation in federal and state healthcare programs.

On April 1, 2025, the Bureau of Industry and Security of the U.S. Department of Commerce initiated a Section 232 investigation on Pharmaceuticals and Pharmaceutical Ingredients, whose scope includes, but is not limited to, finished drug products, medical countermeasures, active pharmaceutical ingredients, starting materials, and derivative products of those items. This Section 232 investigation could result in substantial tariffs on these and related items, which could negatively impact our costs of production and operating margins. On October 31, 2025, CMS issued its final rule for the calendar‑year Physician Fee Schedule (“BFSF Certification Final Rule”), which requires manufacturers to obtain certifications from their third‑party vendors confirming that Bona Fide Service Fees (“BFSFs”) associated with Part B drug sales are not passed through, in whole or in part, to any client or customer, regardless of whether that entity takes title to the drug. Manufacturers must begin complying the BSFS Certification Final Rule beginning January 1, 2026. In addition to submitting these certifications to CMS, manufacturers must maintain detailed documentation supporting the reasonable assumptions used to calculate Average Sales Price (“ASP”), including the methodologies used to classify BFSFs for each contract. These new requirements may increase the risk that certain fees could be reclassified as price concessions, which would negatively affect a product’s ASP. Any such reclassification could reduce future reimbursement for our product(s) under Medicare Part B, which may materially and adversely impact our revenue.

Federal legislative and regulatory efforts to implement reference pricing or most-favored-nation pricing models could impact our product revenues and materially harm our business.

On May 12, 2025, President Trump issued an executive order calling on pharmaceutical manufacturers to voluntarily reduce the prices of medicines in the U.S. and directing the Secretary of HHS to communicate MFN price targets to pharmaceutical manufacturers to align prices with those in comparably developed nations and, in the event significant progress towards MFN pricing is not delivered, to propose rulemaking to impose MFN pricing.

Since the May 12, 2025 order, the Trump administration has continued to exert pressure on drug manufacturers to implement MFN pricing, including by suggesting that the administration may impose significant tariffs on pharmaceuticals if such manufacturers do not reach agreements to implement MFN pricing. Further, in November 2025, the CMS introduced the GENEROUS Model, a voluntary Medicaid payment initiative under which participating drug manufacturers may voluntarily offer supplemental rebates to participating state Medicaid programs that are intended to provide such Medicaid programs with an MFN price for the manufacturers’ products. Additionally, in December 2025, CMS announced proposals for new mandatory demonstration payment models through two proposed rules under its CMMI authority, GLOBE for Medicare Part B and GUARD for Medicare Part D. If finalized, these models would impose additional mandatory rebates on manufacturers of certain Medicare Part B and Medicare Part D drugs, for select Medicare populations intended to represent 25% of Medicare patients, if the Medicare prices for such products exceed those paid in economically comparable countries. Both the GLOBE and GUARD models have proposed seven-year

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testing periods, with the GLOBE model proposed to begin on October 1, 2026 and the GUARD model proposed to begin on January 1, 2027.

These reforms remain subject to change, potential legal challenges, or expansion through additional rulemaking or sub-regulatory guidance, creating uncertainty for our overall pricing strategy. It remains to be seen whether and how these drug pricing initiatives will apply to our product candidates, how they will affect the broader pharmaceutical industry, and whether similar reform measures may be adopted in the future.

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Our relationships with healthcare providers and physicians and third-party payors will be subject to applicable anti-kickback, fraud and abuse and other healthcare laws and regulations, which could expose us to criminal sanctions, civil penalties, contractual damages, reputational harm and diminished profits and future earnings.

Healthcare providers, physicians and third-party payors in the U.S. and elsewhere play a primary role in the recommendation and prescription of pharmaceutical products. Arrangements with third-party payors and customers can expose pharmaceutical manufacturers to broadly applicable fraud and abuse and other healthcare laws and regulations, including, without limitation, the federal Anti-Kickback Statute and the federal False Claims Act, which may constrain the business or financial arrangements and relationships through which such companies sell, market and distribute pharmaceutical products. In particular, the research of our product candidates, as well as the promotion, sales and marketing of healthcare items and services, as well as certain business arrangements in the healthcare industry, are subject to extensive laws designed to prevent fraud, kickbacks, self-dealing and other abusive practices. These laws and regulations may restrict or prohibit a wide range of pricing, discounting, marketing and promotion, structuring and commission(s), certain customer incentive programs and other business arrangements generally. Activities subject to these laws also involve the improper use of information received in the course of patient recruitment for clinical trials. See the section in this Annual Report entitled “Business – Government Regulation – Other Healthcare Laws.”

It is possible that governmental and enforcement authorities will conclude that our business practices may not comply with current or future statutes, regulations or case law interpreting applicable fraud and abuse or other healthcare laws and regulations. If any such actions are instituted against us, and we are not successful in defending ourselves or asserting our rights, those actions could have a significant impact on our business, including the imposition of civil, criminal and administrative penalties, damages, fines, disgorgement, individual imprisonment, possible exclusion from participation in federal and state funded healthcare programs, contractual damages and the curtailment or restricting of our operations, as well as additional reporting obligations and oversight if we become subject to a corporate integrity agreement or other agreement to resolve allegations of non-compliance with these laws. Any action for violation of these laws, even if successfully defended, could cause a pharmaceutical manufacturer to incur significant legal expenses and divert management’s attention from the operation of the business. Prohibitions or restrictions on sales or withdrawal of future marketed products could materially affect business in an adverse way.

Failure to comply with health care privacy and data protection laws and regulations could lead to government enforcement actions (which could include civil or criminal penalties), private litigation, and/or adverse publicity and could negatively affect our operating results and business.

We, our CROs, and any potential collaborators may be subject to strict and changing federal, state, and foreign data protection laws and regulations (i.e., laws and regulations that address privacy and data security) and policies and contractual obligations related to data privacy and security. In the U.S., numerous federal and state laws and regulations, including federal health information privacy laws, state data breach notification laws, state health information privacy laws, and federal and state consumer protection laws (e.g., Section 5 of the Federal Trade Commission Act), that govern the collection, use, disclosure and protection of health-related and other personal information could apply to our operations or the operations of our CROs and collaborators. In addition, we may obtain health information from third parties (including research institutions from which we obtain clinical trial data) that are subject to privacy and security requirements under HIPAA, as amended by the Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health Act of 2009. Depending on the facts and circumstances, we could be subject to civil, criminal, and administrative penalties if we knowingly obtain, use, or disclose individually identifiable health information maintained by a HIPAA-covered entity in a manner that is not authorized or permitted by HIPAA.

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Compliance with U.S. and international data protection laws and regulations could require us to take on more onerous obligations in our contracts, restrict our ability to collect, use and disclose data, or in some cases, impact our ability to operate in certain jurisdictions. Failure to comply with these laws and regulations could result in government enforcement actions (which could include civil, criminal and administrative penalties), private litigation, and/or adverse publicity and could negatively affect our operating results and business. Moreover, clinical trial subjects, employees and other individuals about whom we or our potential collaborators obtain personal information, as well as the providers who share this information with us, may limit our ability to collect, use and disclose the information. Claims that we have violated individuals’ privacy rights, failed to comply with data protection laws, or breached our contractual obligations, even if we are not found liable, could be expensive and time-consuming to defend and could result in adverse publicity that could harm our business.

We have conducted clinical trials and are currently conducting ONYX, our long-term extension clinical trial of apitegromab and OPAL, our Phase 2 clinical trial of apitegromab in children under the age of two living with SMA, in the EEA and the UK, and may conduct future clinical trials in the EEA or the UK. We are therefore subject to European privacy laws, where we collect and use personal data including health related data, in connection with our clinical trials in the EAA, or the UK, including the EU General Data Protection Regulation (the “EU GDPR”), the UK General Data Protection Regulation (the “UK GDPR”) (collectively referred to as the “GDPR”), as well as other national data protection legislation in force in the relevant EEA Member States and the UK (including the UK Data Protection Act of 2018), which govern the collection, use, storage, disclosure, transfer, or other processing of personal data (including health data processed in the context of clinical trials) regarding individuals in the EEA and UK. The GDPR imposes a broad range of strict requirements on companies that process personal data, including requirements relating to having legal bases and conditions for processing personal data and transferring such personal data outside the EEA or the UK, including to the U.S., providing details to those individuals regarding the processing of their personal information and, when relevant, data transfer agreement or other transfer mechanism in place for transfer of personal data from Europe to the US, keeping personal information secure, having data processing agreements with third parties who process personal information, responding to individuals’ requests to exercise their rights in respect of their personal information, where required reporting security breaches involving personal data to the competent national data protection authority and affected individuals, where required, appointing data protection officers, where required conducting data protection impact assessments for high risk processing, and record-keeping. The GDPR imposes penalties in the event of non-compliance, including fines of up to 20.0 million Euros (17.5 million GBP for the UK) or up to 4% of our total worldwide annual turnover for more serious offenses. The GDPR also confers a private right of action on data subjects and consumer associations to lodge complaints with supervisory authorities, seek judicial remedies, and obtain compensation for damages resulting from violations of the GDPR.

The GDPR also imposes strict rules on the transfers of personal data outside of the EEA or the UK to third countries, such as the US in certain circumstances, unless a derogation exists or a valid GDPR transfer mechanism (for example, the European Commission approved standard contractual clauses (“SCCs”) and the UK International Data Transfer Agreement/Addendum (“UK IDTA”)). Where relying on the SCCs or UK IDTA for data transfers, we may also be required to carry out transfer impact assessments to assess whether the recipient is subject to local laws which allow public authority access to personal data. The complexity and the additional contractual burden increases our overall risk exposure. There may be further divergence on international transfer safeguards in the future, including with regard to administrative burdens. Any inability to transfer personal data from the UK and EEA to the US (and other third countries) in compliance with data protection laws may adversely affect our operations and our business and financial position. The UK data protection regime is independent from but currently still aligned with the EEA’s data protection regime. However, going forward, there will be increasing scope for divergence in application, interpretation and enforcement of the data protection law as between the UK and EEA. Although the UK is regarded as a third country under the EU GDPR, the European Commission has issued a decision recognizing the UK as providing adequate protection under the EU GDPR and, therefore, transfers of personal data originating in the EEA to the UK remain unrestricted. Similarly, the UK government has confirmed that personal data transfers from the UK to the EEA remain free flowing. However, the UK Data (Use and Access) Act 2025 now in force, may further differentiate the UK’s data protection regimes and could potentially impact the UK’s adequacy decision granted by the European Commission. The respective provisions and enforcement of the EU GDPR and UK GDPR may continue to diverge, creating additional regulatory challenges and uncertainty. This evolving regulatory landscape could increase legal risk, complexity and cost to our handling of personal data, and may require us to adapt our privacy and data security compliance programs to account for increasing legal and regulatory divergence between the UK and the EEA.

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Further, EU Member States have adopted implementing national laws to implement the EU GDPR which may partially deviate from the EU GDPR and the competent authorities in the EU Member States may interpret EU GDPR obligations slightly differently from country to country, so that we do not expect to operate in a uniform legal landscape in the EU. Also, as it relates to processing and transfer of genetic data, the EU GDPR specifically allows national laws to impose additional and more specific requirements or restrictions, and European laws have historically differed quite substantially in this field, leading to additional uncertainty.

The GDPR increases our responsibility and liability in relation to personal data that we process where such processing is subject to the GDPR. While we’ve taken steps to comply with the GDPR, including as implemented by individual countries, we face uncertainty as to the exact interpretation of these requirements and we may be unsuccessful in implementing all measures required by data protection authorities or courts in interpretation of the law. Compliance with the GDPR is a rigorous and time-intensive process that may increase our cost of doing business or require us to change our business practices, and despite those efforts, there is a risk that we may be subject to fines and penalties, litigation, and reputational harm in connection with our European activities.

In addition, in the United States, many states in which we operate have laws that protect the privacy and security of sensitive and personal information. Certain state laws may be more stringent or broader in scope, or offer greater individual rights, with respect to sensitive and personal information than federal, international or other state laws, and such laws may differ from each other, which may complicate compliance efforts. Where state laws are more protective than HIPAA, we must comply with the state laws we are subject to, in addition to HIPAA. In certain cases, it may be necessary to modify our planned operations and procedures to comply with these more stringent state laws. Further, in some cases where we process sensitive and personal information of individuals from numerous states, we may find it necessary to comply with the most stringent state laws applicable to any of the information. For example, the CCPA creates comprehensive individual privacy rights for California consumers (as defined in the law) and places increased privacy and security obligations on entities handling personal data of consumers or households. While there are currently exceptions for protected health information that is subject to HIPAA and clinical trial regulations, as currently written, the CCPA, as amended by the California Privacy Rights Act, and other enacted or proposed comprehensive state consumer privacy legislation may impact our business activities. Furthermore, certain states have passed or are considering laws that are specifically focused upon health privacy, such as Washington’s My Health My Data Act. The My Health My Data Act imposes new state restrictions and requirements on the processing and sale of consumer health data and creates a private right of action, which further increases the relevant compliance risk. Connecticut and Nevada have also passed similar laws regulating consumer health data. The effects of state and federal privacy laws are potentially significant and may require us to modify our data processing practices and policies and to incur substantial costs and potential liability in an effort to comply with such legislation. We continue to monitor the impact that the state consumer privacy and protection laws, like the CCPA and the My Health My Data Act, may have on our business activities. See the section in this Annual Report entitled “Business – Government Regulation – European General Data Protection Regulation” and “Business – Government Regulation – Other Healthcare and Privacy Laws.”

Artificial intelligence presents risks and challenges that can impact our business including by posing security risks to our confidential information, proprietary information, and personal data.

The potential use of new and evolving technologies, such as artificial intelligence, in our offerings to employees may result in additional spending and present risks and challenges that can impact our business including by posing security and other risks to our confidential information, proprietary information and personal information, and as a result we may be exposed to reputational harm, legal liability, and regulatory investigations and fines.

We may build and integrate artificial intelligence into our offerings, and this innovation may present risks and challenges that could affect its adoption, and therefore our business. If we enable or offer solutions that draw controversy due to perceived or actual negative societal impact, we may experience brand or reputational harm, competitive harm or legal liability. The use of certain artificial intelligence technology can give rise to intellectual property risks, including compromises to proprietary intellectual property and intellectual property infringement, for example where third-party data sources are used to train artificial intelligence models, or the output of artificial intelligence systems reproduce or incorporate third party intellectual property rights, in each case without the right to do so.

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Additionally, we expect to see increasing government and supranational regulation related to artificial intelligence use and ethics, which may also significantly increase the burden and cost of research, development and compliance in this area. For example, the EU’s Artificial Intelligence Act (“AI Act”), the world’s first comprehensive AI law, entered into force on August 1, 2024, and most provisions of which will become effective on August 2, 2026. This legislation imposes tiered obligations on providers and deployers of artificial intelligence systems which are put onto the EU market, or where the output is intended for use in the EU market, depending on the risk classification of the AI system, and encourages providers and deployers of artificial intelligence systems to account for EU fundamental rights in their development and use of these systems. If we develop or use AI systems that are governed by the AI Act, it may necessitate ensuring higher standards of data quality, transparency, and human oversight, and if the AI systems are considered high risk, we would be required to implement substantive risk and quality management systems and post-market monitoring systems and adhere to specific and burdensome and costly ethical, accountability, and administrative requirements. Other jurisdictions, including the United States and UK, are also taking steps to regulate AI systems. The rapid evolution of artificial intelligence will require the application of significant resources to design, develop, test and maintain our service offerings to help ensure that artificial intelligence is implemented in accordance with applicable law and regulation and in a socially responsible, safe and ethical manner and to minimize any real or perceived unintended harmful impacts.

Our vendors may in turn incorporate artificial intelligence tools into their own offerings, and the providers of these artificial intelligence tools may not meet existing or rapidly evolving regulatory or industry standards, including with respect to privacy and data security. Further, bad actors around the world use increasingly sophisticated methods, including the use of artificial intelligence, to engage in illegal activities involving the theft and misuse of personal information, confidential information and intellectual property. Any of these effects could damage our reputation, result in the loss of valuable property and information, cause us to breach applicable laws and regulations, and adversely impact our business. A risk of our proprietary intellectual property rights being compromised through the use of artificial intelligence could arise through third party vendors using our data to train their models and/or to generate output for other users of their systems. There is also a risk (as with any hosted service) of security incidents occurring that could lead to unauthorized access to our data. In the event that personal data (including special category data relating to patients) were to be compromised, we may also face action from regulators and affected data subjects, and damage to our reputation.

Additional laws and regulations governing international operations, including certain U.S. and foreign anti-corruption, anti-money laundering, export control, sanctions, and other trade laws and regulations, could negatively impact or restrict our operations.

If we further expand our operations outside of the U.S., we must dedicate additional resources to comply with numerous laws and regulations in each jurisdiction in which we plan to operate. The FCPA prohibits any U.S. individual or business from paying, offering, authorizing payment or offering of anything of value, directly or indirectly, to any foreign official, political party or candidate for the purpose of influencing any act or decision of the foreign entity in order to assist the individual or business in obtaining or retaining business. The FCPA also obligates companies whose securities are listed in the U.S. to comply with certain accounting provisions requiring the company to maintain books and records that accurately and fairly reflect all transactions of the corporation, including international subsidiaries, and to devise and maintain an adequate system of internal accounting controls for international operations.

Compliance with the FCPA is expensive and difficult, particularly in countries in which corruption is a recognized problem. In addition, the FCPA presents particular challenges in the pharmaceutical industry, because, in many countries, hospitals are operated by the government, and doctors and other hospital employees are considered foreign officials. Certain payments to hospitals in connection with clinical trials and other work have been deemed to be improper payments to government officials and have led to FCPA enforcement actions.

Various laws, regulations and executive orders also restrict the use and dissemination outside of the U.S., or the sharing with certain non-U.S. nationals, of information classified for national security purposes, as well as certain products and technical data relating to those products. If we expand our presence outside of the U.S., it will require us to dedicate additional resources to comply with these laws, and these laws may preclude us from developing, manufacturing, or selling certain products and product candidates outside of the U.S., which could limit our growth potential and increase our development costs.

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The failure to comply with laws governing international business practices may result in substantial civil and criminal penalties and suspension or debarment from government contracting. The SEC also may suspend or bar issuers from trading securities on U.S. exchanges for violations of the FCPA’s accounting provisions.

If we fail to comply with environmental, health and safety laws and regulations, we could become subject to fines or penalties or incur costs that could have a material adverse effect on the success of our business.

We are subject to numerous environmental, health and safety laws and regulations, including those governing laboratory procedures and the handling, use, storage, treatment and disposal of hazardous materials and wastes. Our research and development activities involve the use of biological and hazardous materials and produce hazardous waste products. We generally contract with third parties for the disposal of these materials and wastes. We cannot eliminate the risk of contamination or injury from these materials, which could cause an interruption of our commercialization efforts, research and development efforts and business operations, environmental damage resulting in costly clean-up and liabilities under applicable laws and regulations governing the use, storage, handling and disposal of these materials and specified waste products. Although we believe that the safety procedures utilized by our third-party manufacturers for handling and disposing of these materials generally comply with the standards prescribed by these laws and regulations, we cannot guarantee that this is the case or eliminate the risk of accidental contamination or injury from these materials. In such an event, we may be held liable for any resulting damages and such liability could exceed our resources and state or federal or other applicable authorities may curtail our use of certain materials and/or interrupt our business operations. Furthermore, environmental laws and regulations are complex, change frequently and have tended to become more stringent. We cannot predict the impact of such changes and cannot be certain of our future compliance. In addition, we may incur substantial costs in order to comply with current or future environmental, health and safety laws and regulations. These current or future laws and regulations may impair our research, development or production efforts. Failure to comply with these laws and regulations also may result in substantial fines, penalties or other sanctions.

Although we maintain workers’ compensation insurance to cover us for costs and expenses we may incur due to injuries to our employees resulting from the use of hazardous materials or other work-related injuries, this insurance may not provide adequate coverage against potential liabilities, and as a result, may be subject to lengthy and expensive litigation and excessive damages and we may not have, or be able to obtain, sufficient capital to pay such amounts. We do not carry specific biological waste or hazardous waste insurance coverage, workers compensation or property and casualty and general liability insurance policies that include coverage for damages and fines arising from biological or hazardous waste exposure or contamination.

If product liability lawsuits are brought against us, we may incur substantial liabilities and may be required to limit commercialization of our product candidates.

We face an inherent risk of product liability as a result of testing apitegromab, SRK-181, SRK-439 and any of our future product candidates in clinical trials and will face an even greater risk if we commercialize any products, if approved. For example, we may be sued if our product candidates cause or are perceived to cause injury or are found to be otherwise unsuitable during clinical trials, manufacturing, marketing or sale. Any such product liability claims may include allegations of defects in manufacturing, defects in design, a failure to warn of dangers inherent in the product, negligence, strict liability or a breach of warranties. Claims could also be asserted under state consumer protection acts. If we cannot successfully defend ourselves against product liability claims, we may incur substantial liabilities or be required to limit commercialization of our product candidates. Even successful defense would require significant financial and management resources. Regardless of the merits or eventual outcome, liability claims may result in:

| ● | inability to bring a product candidate to the market;

| ● | decreased demand for our products;

| ● | injury to our reputation;

| ● | withdrawal of clinical trial participants and inability to continue clinical trials;

| ● | initiation of investigations by regulators;

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| ● | costs to defend the related litigation;

| ● | diversion of management’s time and our resources;

| ● | substantial monetary awards to trial participants;

| ● | product recalls, withdrawals or labeling, marketing or promotional restrictions;

| ● | loss of revenue;

| ● | exhaustion of any available insurance and our capital resources;

| ● | the inability to commercialize any product candidate, if approved; and

| ● | decline in our share price.

Our inability to obtain sufficient product liability insurance at an acceptable cost to protect against potential product liability claims could prevent or inhibit the commercialization of products we develop, alone or with collaborators. We may be unable to obtain, or may obtain on unfavorable terms, additional clinical trial insurance in amounts adequate to cover any liabilities from any of our clinical trials. Our insurance policies may also have various exclusions, and we may be subject to a product liability claim for which we have no coverage. We may have to pay any amounts awarded by a court or negotiated in a settlement that exceed our coverage limitations or that are not covered by our insurance, and we may not have, or be able to obtain, sufficient capital to pay such amounts. Even if our agreements with any future corporate collaborators entitle us to indemnification against losses, such indemnification may not be available or adequate should any claim arise.

Our current laboratory operations are concentrated in one location, and we or the third parties upon whom we depend, including our clinical trial sites and the manufacturing facilities of our third-party contract manufacturers, may experience business interruptions and our business continuity and disaster recovery plans may not adequately protect us from a serious disaster, including earthquakes, outbreak of disease or other natural disasters.

Our office and laboratory facilities are located in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Any unplanned event, such as flood, fire, explosion, earthquake, extreme weather condition, medical epidemics, power shortage, telecommunication failure or other natural or manmade accidents or incidents that result in us being unable to fully utilize our facilities, the facilities at any clinical trial site, or the manufacturing facilities of our third-party contract manufacturers, may have a material and adverse effect on our ability to operate our business, particularly on a daily basis, and have significant negative consequences on our financial and operating conditions. Loss of access to these facilities may result in increased costs, delays in the development of apitegromab, SRK-181, SRK-439 and future product candidates or interruption of our business operations. If a natural disaster, outbreak of disease, power outage or other event occurred that prevented us from using all or a significant portion of our headquarters, that damaged critical infrastructure, such as our research facilities, our clinical trial sites or the manufacturing facilities of our third-party contract manufacturers, or that otherwise disrupted operations, it may be difficult or, in certain cases, impossible, for us to continue our business for a substantial period of time.

Global events, including global health concerns could also result in social, economic, and labor instability in the countries in which we operate or where the third parties with whom we engage, including our clinical trial sites and manufacturing facilities of our third-party contract manufacturers, operate. Unforeseen global events, such as increasing rates of inflation and interest and tariff policies, could adversely impact our business. Such conflicts could lead to sanctions, embargoes, supply shortages, regional instability, geopolitical shifts, cyberattacks, other retaliatory actions, and adverse effects on macroeconomic conditions, currency exchange rates, and financial markets, which could adversely impact our operations and financial results, as well as those of third parties with whom we conduct business.

The disaster recovery and business continuity plans we have in place may prove inadequate in the event of a serious disaster or similar event. We may incur substantial expenses as a result of the limited nature of our disaster recovery and business continuity plans, which could have a material adverse effect on our business. As part of our risk management

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policy, we maintain insurance coverage at levels that we believe are appropriate for our business. However, in the event of an accident or incident at our facilities, we cannot assure you that the amounts of insurance will be sufficient to satisfy any damages and losses. If our facilities, the manufacturing facilities of our third-party contract manufacturers, or the sites where we conduct clinical trials or preclinical studies, are unable to operate because of an accident or incident or for any other reason, even for a short period of time, our research and development programs may be harmed. Any business interruption may have a material and adverse effect on our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects.

Coverage and reimbursement may be limited or unavailable in certain market segments for apitegromab, if approved, which could make it difficult for us to sell apitegromab profitably.

The success of apitegromab, if approved, depends on the availability of coverage and adequate reimbursement from third-party payors. We cannot be sure that coverage and reimbursement will be available for, or accurately estimate the potential revenue from, apitegromab. See the sections in this Annual Report entitled “Business– Government Regulation – Coverage and Reimbursement” and “Business–Government Regulation–Current and Future Healthcare Reform Legislation.”

Patients who are provided medical treatment for their conditions generally rely on third-party payors to reimburse all or part of the costs associated with their treatment. Coverage and adequate reimbursement from governmental healthcare programs, such as Medicare and Medicaid or national payor bodies (such as in European countries), and commercial payors is critical to new product acceptance.

Government authorities and other third-party payors, such as private health insurers and health maintenance organizations, decide which drugs and treatments they will cover and the amount of reimbursement. Coverage and reimbursement by a third-party payor may depend upon a number of factors, including the third-party payor’s determination that use of a product is:

| ● | a covered benefit under its health plan;

| ● | safe, effective and medically necessary;

| ● | appropriate for the specific patient;

| ● | cost-effective; and

| ● | neither experimental nor investigational.

In the U.S., no uniform policy of coverage and reimbursement for products exists among third party payors, Coverage and reimbursement for products can differ significantly from payor to payor. One payor’s decision to cover a particular medical product or service does not ensure that other payors will also provide coverage for the medical product or service, or will provide coverage at an adequate reimbursement rate. Coverage and reimbursement for products may vary widely from payor to payor, state-to-state (for example, state Medicaid coverage and reimbursement for products may be subject to varying degrees of coverage restrictions or delays) or across national payors from country to country.

Payors are increasingly challenging the price and examining the medical necessity and cost-effectiveness of medical products and services, in addition to their safety and efficacy. In order to obtain and maintain coverage and reimbursement for any product, we may need to conduct expensive evidence generation studies in order to demonstrate the medical necessity and cost-effectiveness of such a product, in addition to the costs required to obtain regulatory approvals. If payors do not consider a product to be cost-effective compared to current standards of care, they may not cover the product as a benefit under their plans or, if they do, the level of payment may not be sufficient to allow a company to cover its costs or make a profit. Even if we obtain coverage for apitegromab, the resulting reimbursement payment rates might not be adequate for us to achieve or sustain profitability or may require co-payments that patients find unacceptably high. Additionally, third-party payors may not cover, or provide adequate reimbursement for, long-term follow-up evaluations required following the use of apitegromab. Patients are unlikely to use apitegromab unless coverage is provided and reimbursement is adequate to cover a significant portion of the cost of apitegromab. There is

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significant uncertainty related to insurance coverage and reimbursement of newly approved products. It is difficult to predict at this time what third-party payors will decide with respect to the coverage and reimbursement for apitegromab.

Payment methodologies may be subject to changes in healthcare legislation and regulatory initiatives. Additional state and federal healthcare reform measures are expected to be adopted in the future, any of which could limit the amounts that federal and state governments will pay for healthcare products and services, which could result in reduced demand for certain pharmaceutical products or additional pricing pressures.

Moreover, increasing efforts by governmental and third-party payors in the U.S. and abroad to cap or reduce healthcare costs may cause such organizations to limit both coverage and the level of reimbursement for newly approved products and, as a result, they may not cover or provide adequate payment for apitegromab. There has been increasing legislative and enforcement interest in the U.S. with respect to specialty drug pricing practices. Specifically, there have been several recent U.S. Congressional inquiries and proposed and enacted federal and state legislation designed to, among other things, bring more transparency to drug pricing, reduce the cost of prescription drugs under Medicare, review the relationship between pricing and manufacturer patient programs, and reform government program reimbursement methodologies for drugs. We expect to experience pricing pressures in connection with the sale of apitegromab due to the trend toward managed healthcare, the increasing influence of health maintenance organizations, cost containment initiatives and additional legislative changes.

EU drug marketing and reimbursement regulations may materially affect our ability to market and receive coverage for apitegromab in the EU Member States. Also, unfavorable pricing and reimbursement decisions in the EU could delay or limit commercialization of apitegromab, if approved, and materially adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations.

We intend to seek approval to market apitegromab in both the U.S. and in selected foreign jurisdictions. If we receive approval in one or more foreign jurisdictions for apitegromab we will be subject to rules and regulations in those jurisdictions. In some foreign countries, particularly those in the EU, the pricing of medicinal products is subject to governmental control and other market regulations which could put pressure on the pricing and usage of apitegromab. In these countries, pricing negotiations with governmental authorities can take considerable time after receiving marketing approval. In addition, market acceptance and sales of apitegromab will depend significantly on the availability of adequate coverage and reimbursement from third-party payors for apitegromab and may be affected by existing and future health care reform measures.

Much like the federal Anti-Kickback Statute prohibition in the U.S., the provision of benefits or advantages to physicians to induce or encourage the prescription, recommendation, endorsement, purchase, supply, order or use of medicinal products is also prohibited in the EU. The provision of benefits or advantages to physicians is governed by the national anti-inducement, advertising and anti-bribery laws of EU Member States, and in respect of the UK (which is no longer a member of the EU), the Bribery Act 2010. Infringement of these laws could result in substantial fines and imprisonment.

Payments made to physicians in certain EU Member States must be disclosed publicly. Moreover, agreements with physicians often must be the subject of prior notification and approval by the physician’s employer, his or her competent professional organization and/or the regulatory authorities of the individual EU Member States. These requirements are provided in the national laws, industry codes or professional codes of conduct, applicable in the EU Member States. EU Directive 2001/83/EC, which is the EU Directive governing medicinal products for human use, further provides that where medicinal products are being promoted to persons qualified to prescribe or supply them, no gifts, pecuniary advantages or benefits in kind may be supplied, offered or promised to such persons unless they are inexpensive and relevant to the practice of medicine or pharmacy. Failure to comply with these requirements could result in reputational risk, public reprimands, administrative penalties, fines or imprisonment.

Even if apitegromab or any of our future product candidates receive marketing authorization in the EU or UK, we may be unable to successfully commercialize such products in those markets if we are unable to secure pricing and reimbursement on terms that are commercially acceptable. In most foreign countries, including several EU Member States, marketing authorization is only the first step toward patient access and the proposed pricing for a drug must be approved before it may be lawfully marketed. The requirements governing drug pricing and reimbursement vary widely

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from country to country. For example, each EU Member State conducts its own health technology assessment (“HTA”), pricing negotiations, and reimbursement decision-making, potentially resulting in delays of 12-24 months or more (on average) between EC approval and commercial availability. EU Member States can also restrict the range of medicinal products for which their national health insurance systems provide reimbursement and to control the prices of medicinal products for human use. Payers in many European countries impose increasingly stringent clinical, pharmacoeconomic, and budget-impact requirements that may differ significantly from those considered by regulatory authorities during the marketing authorization process. As a result, European authorities may conclude that the benefit–risk profile, real-world evidence, or incremental clinical value of apitegromab, when used as an adjunct to SMN-targeted therapies, does not justify the price we seek.

In December 2021, the Health Technology Assessment Regulation, Regulation (EU) 2021/2282, (“HTAR”) was adopted. The HTAR entered into force on January 11, 2022 and started to apply from January 12, 2025, with phased application depending on the category of health technology. Under the HTAR, EU Member States are required to use common HTA tools, methodologies, and procedures across the EU. Among others, the HTAR establishes an HTA coordination group, composed of national HTA bodies, which jointly conduct Joint Clinical Assessments (“JCAs”) of certain new medicines (including, in the initial phase, oncology medicines and advanced therapy medicinal products) and certain high-risk medical devices and provides for a single EU-level dossier submission for the purposes of JCAs. However, the HTAR focuses on the clinical aspects of HTA, i.e. the relative clinical effectiveness and relative clinical safety of a new health technology compared with relevant existing health technologies, and, as such, individual EU Member States remain responsible for determining the overall value of a new health technology within their healthcare systems, as well as making pricing and reimbursement decisions.

Reference pricing used by various EU Member States and parallel distribution, or arbitrage between low-priced and high-priced Member States, can further reduce prices. Pricing negotiations in the EU are highly unpredictable and a Member State may approve a specific price for the medicinal product or it may instead adopt a system of direct or indirect controls on the profitability of the company placing the medicinal product on the market. In addition, regional decision-making, such as in Italy, Spain, and Germany, may lead to fragmented sub-national reimbursement requirements, duplicative reviews, or further restrictions on access. In some countries, we may be required to conduct a clinical study or other studies that compare the cost-effectiveness of any of our product candidates to other available therapies in order to obtain or maintain reimbursement or pricing approval. Generating such data may require substantial investment and time and may delay reimbursement approval or lead to conditional or temporary reimbursement that could be revoked if post-authorization evidence does not meet the expectations of payers.

There can be no assurance that any country that has price controls or reimbursement limitations for pharmaceutical products will allow favorable reimbursement and pricing arrangements for apitegromab. Historically, products launched in the EU do not follow price structures of the U.S. and generally prices tend to be significantly lower and, in certain countries, below levels required for commercial viability. Publication of discounts by third-party payors or authorities may lead to further pressure on the prices or reimbursement levels within the country of publication and other countries. Moreover, any delays or negative outcomes in pricing or reimbursement negotiations in major markets such as Germany, France, Italy, Spain, or the UK could adversely influence decisions in other EU Member States due to cross-border reference pricing, or coordinated negotiation mechanisms that are increasingly being adopted across the EU. A low price, stringent reimbursement limitation, or reimbursement denial in one influential country may therefore have a cascading effect across multiple markets. In addition, if negotiated EU list prices become public, an unfavorable price published in one EU Member State could place pressure on pricing negotiations in other jurisdictions.

If pricing is set at unsatisfactory levels or if reimbursement of apitegromab is unavailable or limited in scope or amount, our revenues from sales by us or our strategic partners and the potential profitability of apitegromab in those countries would be negatively affected. If we are unable to secure satisfactory pricing and reimbursement in the EU, or if the reimbursement landscape evolves in ways that impose additional uncertainty, delay, or financial burden, we may be unable to realize the full commercial potential of apitegromab or any future product candidate in these markets. Any of these events could materially adversely affect our business, prospects, financial condition and results of operations.

We may seek to enter into collaborations in the future with third parties, including for apitegromab, SRK-181, SRK-439 or potential product candidates. If we are unable to enter into such collaborations, or if these collaborations are not successful, our business could be adversely affected.

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A part of our strategy is to evaluate and, as deemed appropriate, enter into additional collaborations or partnerships in the future when strategically attractive, including potentially with biotechnology or pharmaceutical companies. We have limited capabilities for product development and only recently have begun to build our capabilities to prepare for potential commercialization. Accordingly, we may enter into collaborations with other companies to provide us with important technologies, capabilities and funding for our programs and underlying technology.

Any future collaboration we enter into may pose a number of risks, including the following:

| ● | collaborators may have significant discretion or decision-making authority in determining the efforts and resources that they will apply to the collaboration or that we are required to apply to the collaboration;

| ● | collaborators may not perform their obligations as expected or in a manner satisfactory to us;

| ● | we may commit to certain preclinical or clinical development or commercialization efforts as part of the collaboration that we are unable to meet or our collaborators may not be satisfied with our preclinical or clinical development or commercialization efforts;

| ● | collaborators may not pursue development and commercialization of any product candidates that achieve regulatory approval or may elect not to continue or renew development or commercialization programs or license arrangements based on clinical trial results, changes in the collaborators’ strategic focus or available funding, or external factors, such as a strategic transaction that may divert resources or create competing priorities;

| ● | collaborators may delay clinical trials, provide insufficient funding for a clinical trial program, stop a clinical trial or abandon a product candidate, repeat or conduct new clinical trials or require a new formulation of a product candidate for clinical testing;

| ● | collaborators could independently develop, or develop with third parties, products that compete directly or indirectly with our products and product candidates if the collaborators believe that the competitive products are more likely to be successfully developed or can be commercialized under terms that are more economically attractive than ours;

| ● | product candidates discovered in collaboration with us may be viewed by our collaborators as competitive with their own product candidates or products, which may cause collaborators to cease to devote resources to the commercialization of our product candidates;

| ● | collaborators may fail to comply with applicable regulatory requirements regarding the development, manufacture, distribution or marketing of a product candidate or product;

| ● | collaborators with marketing and distribution rights to one or more of our product candidates that achieve regulatory approval may not commit sufficient resources to the marketing and distribution of such product or products;

| ● | disagreements with collaborators, including disagreements over proprietary rights, contract interpretation or the preferred course of development, might cause delays or terminations of the research, development or commercialization of product candidates, might lead to additional responsibilities for us with respect to product candidates, or might result in litigation or arbitration, any of which would be time-consuming and expensive;

| ● | collaborators may not properly maintain or defend our intellectual property rights or may use our proprietary information in such a way as to invite litigation that could jeopardize or invalidate our intellectual property or proprietary information or expose us to potential litigation;

| ● | collaborators may infringe the intellectual property rights of third parties, which may expose us to litigation and potential liability;

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| ● | if a collaborator of ours is involved in a business combination, the collaborator might deemphasize or terminate the development or commercialization of any product candidate licensed to it by us;

| ● | collaborations may be terminated by the collaborator, and, if terminated, we may be blocked to advance the program due to collaborator patents that are not licensed to us; and

| ● | collaborations may be terminated by the collaborator, and, if terminated, we could be required to raise additional capital to pursue further development or commercialization of the applicable product candidates.

If our future collaborations do not result in the successful discovery, development and commercialization of product candidates or if one of our collaborators terminates its agreement with us, we may not receive any future research funding or milestone or royalty payments under such collaboration. All of the risks relating to product development, regulatory approval and commercialization described in this Annual Report also apply to the activities of potential therapeutic collaborators.

Additionally, if one of our collaborators terminates its agreement with us, we may find it more difficult to attract new collaborators and our perception in the biotechnology or pharmaceutical industry, including within the business and financial communities, could be adversely affected.

We face significant competition in seeking appropriate partners for our product candidates, and the negotiation process is time-consuming and complex. In order for us to successfully partner our product candidates, potential partners must view these product candidates as economically valuable in markets they determine to be attractive in light of the terms that we are seeking and other available products for licensing by other companies. Collaborations are complex and time-consuming to negotiate and document. In addition, there have been a significant number of recent business combinations among large pharmaceutical companies that have resulted in a reduced number of potential future collaborators. Our ability to reach a definitive agreement for a collaboration will depend, among other things, upon our assessment of the collaborator’s resources and expertise, the terms and conditions of the proposed collaboration and the proposed collaborator’s evaluation of a number of factors. If we are unable to reach agreements with suitable collaborators on a timely basis, on acceptable terms, or at all, we may have to curtail the development of a product candidate, reduce or delay its development program or one or more of our other development programs, delay its potential commercialization or reduce the scope of any sales or marketing activities, or increase our expenditures and undertake development or commercialization activities at our own expense. If we elect to increase our expenditures to fund development or commercialization activities on our own, we may need to obtain additional expertise and additional capital, which may not be available to us on acceptable terms, or at all. If we fail to enter into collaborations or do not have sufficient funds or expertise to undertake the necessary development and commercialization activities, we may not be able to further develop our product candidates, bring them to market and generate revenue from sales of drugs or continue to develop our technology, and our business may be materially and adversely affected. Even if we are successful in our efforts to establish new strategic collaborations, the terms that we agree upon may not be favorable to us, and we may not be able to maintain such strategic collaborations if, for example, development or approval of a product candidate is delayed or sales of an approved product are disappointing. Any delay in entering into new strategic collaboration agreements related to our product candidates could delay the development and commercialization of our product candidates and reduce their competitiveness even if they reach the market.

Risks Related to Our Intellectual Property

Our success depends in part on our ability to protect our intellectual property. It is difficult and costly to protect our proprietary rights and technology, and we may not be able to ensure their protection.

Our commercial success will depend in large part on obtaining and maintaining patent, trademark and trade secret protection of our proprietary technologies and our product candidates, their respective components, formulations, combination therapies, methods used to manufacture them and methods of treatment, as well as successfully defending these patents against third-party challenges. Our ability to stop unauthorized third parties from making, using, selling, offering to sell or importing our product candidates is dependent upon the extent to which we have rights under valid and enforceable patents that cover these activities. If we are unable to secure and maintain patent protection for any product or technology we develop, or if the scope of the patent protection secured is not sufficiently broad, our competitors could

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develop and commercialize products and technology similar or identical to ours, and our ability to commercialize any product candidates we may develop may be adversely affected.

The patenting process is expensive and time-consuming, and we may not be able to file and prosecute all necessary or desirable patent applications at a reasonable cost or in a timely manner. In addition, we may not pursue or obtain patent protection in all relevant markets. Unforeseen global events, and sanctions or actions relating to such events, could affect our ability to file, prosecute, maintain, and/or defend patents and applications in those markets. It is also possible that we will fail to identify patentable aspects of our research and development output before it is too late to obtain patent protection. Moreover, in some circumstances, we may not have the right to control the preparation, filing and prosecution of patent applications, or to maintain the patents, covering technology that we license from or license to third parties and are reliant on our licensors or licensees.

The strength of patents in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical field involves complex legal and scientific questions and can be uncertain. The patent applications that we own or in-license may fail to result in issued patents with claims that cover our product candidates or uses thereof in the U.S. and/or in other foreign countries. Even if the patents do successfully issue, third parties may challenge the validity, enforceability or scope thereof, which may result in such patents being narrowed, invalidated or held unenforceable. For example, Russia issued a decree in March of 2022, stating that patent owners who reside in a country “unfriendly” to Russia are not entitled to compensation in the event of patent infringement. Furthermore, even if they are unchallenged, our patents and patent applications may not adequately protect our intellectual property and/or prevent others from designing around our claims. If the breadth or strength of protection provided by the patent applications we hold with respect to our product candidates is threatened, it could dissuade companies from collaborating with us to develop, and threaten our ability to commercialize, our product candidates. Further, if we encounter delays in our clinical trials, the period of time during which we could market our product candidates under patent protection would be reduced.

We cannot be certain that we are the first to invent the inventions covered by pending patent applications and, if we are not, we may be subject to priority disputes. We may be required to disclaim part or all of the term of certain patents or all of the term of certain patent applications. There may be prior art of which we are not aware that may affect the validity or enforceability of a patent claim. There also may be prior art of which we are aware, but which we do not believe affects the validity or enforceability of a claim, which may, nonetheless, ultimately be found to affect the validity or enforceability of a claim. No assurance can be given that if challenged, our patents would be declared by a court to be valid or enforceable or that even if found valid and enforceable, a competitor’s technology or product would be found by a court to infringe our patents. We may analyze patents or patent applications of our competitors that we believe are relevant to our activities, and consider that we are free to operate in relation to our product candidates, but our competitors may achieve issued claims, including in patents we consider to be unrelated, which block our efforts or may potentially result in our product candidates or our activities infringing such claims. The possibility exists that others will develop products which have the same effect as our products on an independent basis which do not infringe our patents or other intellectual property rights, or will design around the claims of patents that we have had issued that cover our products.

In addition, periodic maintenance fees on any issued patent are due to be paid to the U.S. Patent Office (“USPTO”) and foreign patent agencies in several stages over the lifetime of the patent. The USPTO and various foreign governmental patent agencies require compliance with a number of procedural, documentary, fee payment and other provisions during the patent application process and following the issuance of a patent. While an inadvertent lapse can, in many cases, be cured by payment of a late fee or by other means in accordance with the applicable rules, there are situations in which noncompliance can result in abandonment or lapse of the patent or patent application, resulting in partial or complete loss of patent rights in the relevant jurisdiction. Noncompliance events that could result in abandonment or lapse of a patent or patent application include, but are not limited to, failure to respond to official actions within prescribed time limits, non-payment of fees and failure to properly legalize and submit formal documents. Moreover, complications due to public health crises such as global pandemics may result in inadvertent lapse due to, for example, unexpected closures of the USPTO or foreign patent offices, delays in delivery of notifications relating to deadlines, or failure to timely and/or properly obtain signatures on necessary documents. Additionally, due to the ongoing conflict in Ukraine, there remain uncertainties as to any potential impact on patent protection and/or enforcement in the region, including, for example, payments to the Russian Patent Office and other entities. In such an event, our competitors might be able to enter the market, which would have a material adverse effect on our business.

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The degree of future protection for our proprietary rights is uncertain because legal means afford only limited protection and may not adequately protect our rights or permit us to gain or keep our competitive advantage. For example:

| ● | it is possible that our pending patent applications will not result in issued patents;

| ● | we or our licensors, as the case may be, might not have been the first to file patent applications for these inventions;

| ● | the claims of our owned or in-licensed issued patents or patent applications, if and when issued, may not cover our product candidates;

| ● | it is possible that there are prior public disclosures that could invalidate our or our licensors’ patents, as the case may be, or parts of our or their patents;

| ● | our owned or in-licensed issued patents may not provide us with any competitive advantages, may be narrowed in scope, or be held invalid or unenforceable as a result of legal challenges by third parties;

| ● | we or our licensors, as the case may be, may fail to meet our obligations to the U.S. government in regards to any in-licensed patents and patent applications funded by U.S. government grants, leading to the loss of patent rights;

| ● | the laws of foreign countries may not protect our or our licensors’, as the case may be, proprietary rights to the same extent as the laws of the U.S.;

| ● | the inventors of our owned or in-licensed patents or patent applications may become involved with competitors, develop products or processes which design around our patents, or become hostile to us or the patents or patent applications on which they are named as inventors;

| ● | it is possible that our owned or in-licensed patents or patent applications omit individual(s) that should be listed as inventor(s) or include individual(s) that should not be listed as inventor(s), which may cause these patents or patents issuing from these patent applications to be held invalid or unenforceable;

| ● | others may be able to make or use compounds or cells that are similar to the biological compositions of our product candidates but that are not covered by the claims of our patents;

| ● | others may independently develop similar or alternative technologies or duplicate any of our technologies;

| ● | it is possible that others may circumvent our owned or in-licensed patents;

| ● | the active biological ingredients in our current product candidates will eventually become commercially available in biosimilar drug products, and no patent protection may be available with regard to formulation or method of use;

| ● | we have engaged in scientific collaborations in the past, and will continue to do so in the future. Such collaborators may develop adjacent or competing products to ours that are outside the scope of our patents;

| ● | we may not develop additional proprietary technologies for which we can obtain patent protection;

| ● | it is possible that product candidates or diagnostic tests we develop may be covered by third parties’ patents or other exclusive rights;

| ● | it is possible that there are unpublished applications or patent applications maintained in secrecy that may later issue with claims covering our products or technology similar to ours; and/or

| ● | the patents of others may have an adverse effect on our business.

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Our current patents covering our proprietary technologies and our product candidates are expected to expire beginning in 2034, without taking into account any possible patent term adjustments or extensions. Our earliest patents may expire before, or soon after, our first product achieves marketing approval in the U.S. or foreign jurisdictions. Upon the expiration of our current patents, we may lose the right to exclude others from practicing these inventions. The expiration of these patents could also have a material adverse effect on our business, results of operations, financial condition and prospects. We own pending patent applications covering our proprietary technologies or our product candidates that if issued as patents are expected to expire from 2034 through 2046, without taking into account any possible patent term adjustments or extensions. However, we cannot be assured that the USPTO or relevant foreign patent offices will grant any of these patent applications.

We depend on intellectual property licensed from third parties. Failure to comply with our obligations under any of these licenses or termination of any of these licenses could result in the loss of significant rights, which would harm our business.

We are dependent on patents, know-how and proprietary technology, including intellectual property rights licensed from others. We may be a party to license agreements pursuant to which we in-license key patents and patent applications for our product candidates. These licenses impose various diligence, milestone payment, royalty, insurance and other obligations on us. If we fail to comply with these obligations, our licensors may have the right to terminate the license. Any termination of licenses by third parties could result in our loss of significant intellectual property rights and could harm our ability to commercialize our product candidates.

We may have limited control over the maintenance and prosecution of these in-licensed patents and patent applications, activities or any other intellectual property that may be related to our in-licensed intellectual property. For example, we cannot be certain that such activities by these licensors have been or will be conducted in compliance with applicable laws and regulations or will result in valid and enforceable patents and other intellectual property rights. We may have limited control over the manner in which our licensors initiate an infringement proceeding against a third-party infringer of the intellectual property rights, or defend certain of the intellectual property that is licensed to us. It is possible that the licensors’ infringement proceeding or defense activities may be less vigorous than had we conducted them ourselves.

Disputes may also arise between us and our licensors regarding intellectual property subject to a license agreement, including:

| ● | the scope of rights granted under the license agreement and other interpretation related issues;

| ● | whether and the extent to which our technology and processes infringe on intellectual property of the licensor that is not subject to the licensing agreement;

| ● | our right to sublicense patent and other rights to third parties under collaborative development relationships; and

| ● | the ownership of inventions and know-how resulting from the joint creation or use of intellectual property by our licensors and us and our partners.

If disputes over intellectual property that we have licensed prevent or impair our ability to maintain our current licensing arrangements on acceptable terms, we may be unable to successfully develop and commercialize the affected product candidates.

We may not be successful in obtaining or maintaining necessary rights to develop any future product candidates on acceptable terms.

Because our programs may involve additional product candidates that may require the use of additional proprietary rights held by third parties, the growth of our business may depend in part on our ability to acquire, in-license or use these proprietary rights.

Our product candidates may also require specific formulations to work effectively and efficiently, and these rights may be held by others. We may develop products containing our compounds and pre-existing pharmaceutical compounds.

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We may be required by the FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities to provide a companion diagnostic test or tests with our product candidates. These diagnostic test or tests may be covered by intellectual property rights held by others. We may be unable to acquire or in-license any compositions, methods of use, processes or other third-party intellectual property rights from third parties that we identify as necessary or important to our business operations. We may fail to obtain any of these licenses at a reasonable cost or on reasonable terms, if at all, which would harm our business. We may need to cease use of the compositions or methods covered by such third-party intellectual property rights, and may need to seek to develop alternative approaches that do not infringe on such intellectual property rights which may entail additional costs and development delays, even if we were able to develop such alternatives, which may not be feasible. Even if we are able to obtain a license, it may be non-exclusive, thereby giving our competitors access to the same technologies licensed to us. In that event, we may be required to expend significant time and resources to develop or license replacement technology.

Additionally, we sometimes collaborate with academic institutions to accelerate our preclinical research or development under written agreements with these institutions. In certain cases, these institutions provide us with an option to negotiate a license to any of the institution’s rights in technology resulting from the collaboration. Regardless of such option, we may be unable to negotiate a license within the specified timeframe or under terms that are acceptable to us. If we are unable to do so, the institution may offer the intellectual property rights to others, potentially blocking our ability to pursue our program. If we are unable to successfully obtain rights to required third-party intellectual property or to maintain the existing intellectual property rights we have, we may have to abandon development of such program and our business and financial condition could suffer.

The licensing or acquisition of third-party intellectual property rights is a competitive area, and companies, which may be more established, or have greater resources than we do, may also be pursuing strategies to license or acquire third-party intellectual property rights that we may consider necessary or attractive in order to commercialize our product candidates. More established companies may have a competitive advantage over us due to their size, cash resources and greater clinical development and commercialization capabilities. There can be no assurance that we will be able to successfully complete such negotiations and ultimately acquire the rights to the intellectual property surrounding the additional product candidates that we may seek to acquire.

Changes in patent law in the U.S. and in ex-U.S. jurisdictions could diminish the value of patents in general, thereby impairing our ability to protect our products.

As is the case with other biopharmaceutical companies, our success is heavily dependent on intellectual property, particularly patents. Obtaining and enforcing patents in the biopharmaceutical industry involve both technological and legal complexity, and is therefore costly, time-consuming and inherently uncertain.

In addition, recent or future patent reform legislation could increase the uncertainties and costs surrounding the prosecution of our patent applications and the enforcement or defense of our issued patents. Under the enacted Leahy-Smith America Invents Act (the “America Invents Act”), enacted in 2013, the U.S. moved from a “first to invent” to a “first to file” system. Under a “first to file” system, assuming the other requirements for patentability are met, the first inventor to file a patent application generally will be entitled to a patent on the invention regardless of whether another inventor had made the invention earlier. The America Invents Act includes a number of other significant changes to U.S. patent law, including provisions that affect the way patent applications are prosecuted, redefine prior art and establish a new post-grant review system. The effects of these changes are currently unclear as the USPTO only recently developed new regulations and procedures in connection with the America Invents Act, and many of the substantive changes to patent law, including the “first to file” provisions, only became effective in March 2013. In addition, the courts have yet to address many of these provisions and the applicability of the act and new regulations on specific patents discussed herein have not been determined and would need to be reviewed. However, the America Invents Act and its implementation could increase the uncertainties and costs surrounding the prosecution of our patent applications and the enforcement or defense of our issued patents, all of which could have a material adverse effect on our business and financial condition.

Recent U.S. Supreme Court rulings have also narrowed the scope of patent protection available in certain circumstances and weakened the rights of patent owners in certain situations. In addition to increasing uncertainty with regard to our ability to obtain patents in the future, this combination of events has created uncertainty with respect to the value of

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patents, once obtained. As a consequence, issued patents may be found to contain invalid claims according to the newly revised eligibility and validity standards. Additionally, some of our owned or in-licensed patents may be subject to challenge and subsequent invalidation or significant narrowing of claim scope in proceedings before the USPTO, or during litigation, under the revised criteria which could also make it more difficult to obtain patents.

Depending on decisions by the U.S. Congress, the federal courts, and the USPTO, the laws and regulations governing patents, or interpretation thereof, could change in unpredictable ways that would weaken our ability to obtain new patents, to maintain, or to enforce our existing patents and patents that we might obtain in the future. For example, in the case Amgen Inc. v. Sanofi, the Federal Circuit held that a well characterized antigen is insufficient to satisfy the written description requirement of certain claims directed to a genus of antibodies that are solely defined by function. While the validity of a subset of patents at issue was subsequently upheld by a district court jury, uncertainty remains as to the legal question pertaining to the written description requirement under 35 USC §112 as it relates to functional antibodies. In the case of Assoc. for Molecular Pathology v. Myriad Genetics, Inc., the U.S. Supreme Court held that certain claims to DNA molecules are not patentable. We cannot predict how these decisions or any future decisions by the courts, the U.S. Congress or the USPTO may impact the value of our patents. Similarly, any adverse changes in the patent laws of other jurisdictions could have a material adverse effect on our business and financial condition. For example, Russia issued a decree in March of 2022, stating that patent owners who reside in a country “unfriendly” to Russia are not entitled to compensation in the event of patent infringement.

Third-party claims of intellectual property infringement may prevent or delay our product discovery and development efforts.

Our commercial success depends in part on our ability to develop, manufacture, market and sell our product candidates and use our proprietary technologies without infringing the proprietary rights of third parties. There is a substantial amount of litigation involving patents and other intellectual property rights in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical industries, as well as administrative proceedings for challenging patents, including interference, derivation, inter partes review, post-grant review, and reexamination proceedings before the USPTO or oppositions and other comparable proceedings in foreign jurisdictions. We may be exposed to, or threatened with, future litigation by third parties having patent or other intellectual property rights alleging that our product candidates and/or proprietary technologies infringe their intellectual property rights. Numerous U.S. and foreign issued patents and pending patent applications, which are owned by third parties, exist in the fields in which we are developing our product candidates. As the biotechnology and pharmaceutical industries expand and more patents are issued, the risk increases that our product candidates may give rise to claims of infringement of the patent rights of others. Moreover, it is not always clear to industry participants, including us, which patents cover various types of drugs, products or their methods of use or manufacture. Thus, because of the large number of patents issued and patent applications filed in our fields, there may be a risk that third parties may allege they have patent rights encompassing our product candidates, technologies or methods.

If a third-party claims that we infringe its intellectual property rights, we may face a number of issues, including, but not limited to:

| ● | infringement and other intellectual property claims which, regardless of merit, may be expensive and time-consuming to litigate and may divert our management’s attention from our core business;

| ● | substantial damages for infringement, which we may have to pay if a court decides that the product candidate or technology at issue infringes on or violates the third-party’s rights, and, if the court finds that the infringement was willful, we could be ordered to pay treble damages and the patent owner’s attorneys’ fees;

| ● | a court prohibiting us from developing, manufacturing, marketing or selling our product candidates, or from using our proprietary technologies, unless the third-party licenses its product rights to us, which it is not required to do;

| ● | if a license is available from a third-party, we may have to pay substantial royalties, upfront fees and other amounts, and/or grant cross-licenses to intellectual property rights for our products; and

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| ● | redesigning our product candidates or processes so they do not infringe, which may not be possible or may require substantial monetary expenditures and time.

Some of our competitors may be able to sustain the costs of complex patent litigation more effectively than we can because they have substantially greater resources. In addition, any uncertainties resulting from the initiation and continuation of any litigation could have a material adverse effect on our ability to raise the funds necessary to continue our operations or could otherwise have a material adverse effect on our business, results of operations, financial condition and prospects.

Third parties may assert that we are employing their proprietary technology without authorization. Generally, conducting clinical trials and other development activities in the U.S. is protected under the Safe Harbor exemption as set forth in 35 U.S.C. § 271. If and when apitegromab, SRK-181, or another one of our product candidates is approved by the FDA, that certain third-party may then seek to enforce its patent by filing a patent infringement lawsuit against us. While we are not aware of any claims of such a patent that could otherwise materially adversely affect commercialization of our product candidates, we may be incorrect in this belief, or we may not be able to prove it in a litigation. In this regard, patents issued in the U.S. by law enjoy a presumption of validity that can be rebutted only with evidence that is “clear and convincing,” a heightened standard of proof. There may be third-party patents of which we are currently unaware with claims to materials, formulations, methods of manufacture or methods for treatment related to the use or manufacture of our product candidates. Because patent applications can take many years to issue, there may be currently pending patent applications which may later result in issued patents that our product candidates may infringe. In addition, third parties may obtain patents in the future and claim that use of our technologies infringes upon these patents. If any third-party patents were held by a court of competent jurisdiction to cover the manufacturing process of our product candidates, constructs or molecules used in or formed during the manufacturing process, or any final product itself, the holders of any such patents may be able to block our ability to commercialize the product candidate unless we obtained a license under the applicable patents, or until such patents expire or they are finally determined to be held invalid or unenforceable. Similarly, if any third-party patent were held by a court of competent jurisdiction to cover aspects of our formulations, processes for manufacture or methods of use, the holders of any such patent may be able to block our ability to develop and commercialize the product candidate unless we obtained a license or until such patent expires or is finally determined to be held invalid or unenforceable. In either case, such a license may not be available on commercially reasonable terms, or at all. If we are unable to obtain a necessary license to a third-party patent on commercially reasonable terms, or at all, our ability to commercialize our product candidates may be impaired or delayed, which could in turn significantly harm our business. Even if we obtain a license, it may be non-exclusive, thereby giving our competitors access to the same technologies licensed to us. In addition, if the breadth or strength of protection provided by our patents and patent applications is threatened, it could dissuade companies from collaborating with us to license, develop or commercialize current or future product candidates.

Parties making claims against us may seek and obtain injunctive or other equitable relief, which could effectively block our ability to further develop and commercialize our product candidates. Defense of these claims, regardless of their merit, would involve substantial litigation expense and would be a substantial diversion of employee resources from our business. In the event of a successful claim of infringement against us, we may have to pay substantial damages, including treble damages and attorneys’ fees for willful infringement, obtain one or more licenses from third parties, and/or pay royalties or redesign our infringing products, which may be impossible or require substantial time and monetary expenditure. We cannot predict whether any such license would be available at all or whether it would be available on commercially reasonable terms. Furthermore, even in the absence of litigation, we may need to obtain licenses from third parties to advance our research or allow commercialization of our product candidates. We may fail to obtain any of these licenses at a reasonable cost or on reasonable terms, if at all. In that event, we would be unable to further develop and commercialize our product candidates, which could harm our business significantly.

We may also choose to challenge the patentability of claims in a third-party’s U.S. patent by requesting that the USPTO review the patent claims in an ex-parte re-exam, inter partes review or post-grant review proceedings. These proceedings are expensive and may consume our time or other resources. We may choose to challenge the grant of a third-party’s patent in opposition proceedings in the EPO or other foreign patent office. The costs of these opposition proceedings could be substantial, and may consume our time or other resources. If we fail to obtain a favorable result at the USPTO, EPO or other patent office, then we may be exposed to litigation by a third-party alleging that the patent may be infringed by our product candidates or proprietary technologies.

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Additionally, the Unitary Patent/Unified Patent Court system in Europe became fully operational in June 2023.

| ● | The new court may be associated with greater degrees of uncertainty in litigation, with respect to both planning and outcome.

| ● | The opt-out selection afforded during the transition may have a direct impact on future litigation and may result in loss of certain flexibility with regard to choice of forum and other litigation strategy considerations.

We may incur substantial costs as a result of litigation or other proceedings relating to our patents or the patents of our licensors, and we may be unable to protect our rights to our products and technology.

Competitors may infringe our patents or the patents of our licensors. To counter infringement or unauthorized use, we may be required to file infringement claims against a third party(ies), which can be expensive and time-consuming. In addition, in an infringement proceeding, a court may decide that one or more of our patents is not valid or is unenforceable, or may refuse to stop the other party from using the technology at issue on the grounds that our patents do not cover the technology in question. There is also the risk that, even if the validity of our patents or the patents of our licensors is upheld, the court will refuse to stop the third-party on the ground that such third-party’s activities do not infringe our owned or in-licensed patents. An adverse result in any litigation or defense proceedings could put one or more of our patents at risk of being invalidated, held unenforceable, or interpreted narrowly and could put our patent applications at risk of not issuing. Defense of these claims, regardless of their merit, would involve substantial litigation expense and would be a substantial diversion of employee resources from our business.

Furthermore, because of the substantial amount of discovery required in connection with intellectual property litigation, there is a risk that some of our confidential information could be compromised by disclosure during this type of litigation. In addition, there could be public announcements of the results of hearings, motions or other interim proceedings or developments. If securities analysts or investors perceive these results to be negative, it could have a substantial adverse effect on the price of our common stock.

In some situations, we or our licensor, may not be able to detect infringement against our owned or in-licensed patents, as the case may be, which may be especially difficult for manufacturing processes or formulation patents. Even if we or our licensors detect infringement by a third-party of our owned or in-licensed patents, we or our licensors, as the case may be, may choose not to pursue litigation against or settlement with the third-party. If we, or our licensors, later sue such third-party for patent infringement, the third-party may have certain legal defenses available to it, which otherwise would not be available except for the delay between when the infringement was first detected and when the suit was brought. Such legal defenses may make it impossible for us or our licensors to enforce our owned or in-licensed patents, as the case may be, against such third-party.

Issued patents covering our product candidates could be found invalid or unenforceable if challenged in court or the USPTO.

If we or one of our licensing partners initiate legal proceedings against a third-party to enforce a patent covering one of our product candidates, the defendant could counterclaim that the patent covering our product candidate, as applicable, is invalid and/or unenforceable. In patent litigation in the U.S., defendant counterclaims alleging invalidity and/or unenforceability are commonplace, and there are numerous grounds upon which a third-party can assert invalidity or unenforceability of a patent. Third parties may also raise similar claims before administrative bodies in the U.S. or abroad, even outside the context of litigation. Such mechanisms include inter parties review, ex parte re-examination, post-grant review, and equivalent proceedings in foreign jurisdictions (e.g., opposition proceedings). For example, EP3368069, EP2981822 and EP3365368 are currently subject to opposition proceedings. Such proceedings are expensive and could result in revocation or amendment to our patents in such a way that they no longer cover our product candidates. The outcome following legal assertions of invalidity and unenforceability is unpredictable. With respect to the validity question, for example, we cannot be certain that there is no invalidating prior art, of which we, our patent counsel and the patent examiner were unaware during prosecution. If a defendant were to prevail on a legal assertion of invalidity and/or unenforceability, or if we are otherwise unable to adequately protect our rights, we would lose at least part, and perhaps all, of the patent protection on our product candidates. Such a loss of patent protection

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could have a material adverse impact on our business and our ability to commercialize or license our technology and product candidates.

In addition, because some patent applications in the U.S. may be maintained in secrecy until the patents are issued, because patent applications in PCT member jurisdictions are typically not published until 18 months after the earliest filing, and because publications in the scientific literature often lag behind actual discoveries, we cannot be certain that others have not filed patent applications for technology covered by our owned and in-licensed issued patents or our pending applications, or that we or, if applicable, a licensor were the first to invent the technology. Our competitors may have filed, and may in the future file, patent applications covering our products, compositions, methods of use, or technology similar to ours. Any such patent application may have priority over our owned and in-licensed patent applications or patents, which could require us to obtain rights to issued patents covering such technologies. If another party has filed a U.S. patent application on inventions similar to those owned by or in-licensed to us, we or, in the case of in-licensed technology, the licensor may have to participate in an interference proceeding declared by the USPTO to determine priority of invention in the U.S. If we or one of our licensors is a party to an interference proceeding involving a U.S. patent application on inventions owned by or in-licensed to us, we may incur substantial costs, divert management’s time and expend other resources, even if we are successful.

For applications filed under pre-AIA, interference proceedings declared by the USPTO may be necessary to determine the priority of inventions with respect to our patents or patent applications or those of our licensors. An unfavorable outcome could result in a loss of our current patent rights and could require us to cease using the related technology or to attempt to license rights to it from the prevailing party. Our business could be harmed if the prevailing party does not offer us a license on commercially reasonable terms. Litigation or interference proceedings may result in a decision adverse to our interests and, even if we are successful, may result in substantial costs and distract our management and other employees. We may not be able to prevent, alone or with our licensors, misappropriation of our trade secrets or confidential information, particularly in countries where the laws may not protect those rights as fully as in the U.S.

We have limited foreign intellectual property rights and may not be able to protect our intellectual property rights throughout the world.

We have limited intellectual property rights outside the U.S. Filing, prosecuting and defending patents on product candidates in all countries throughout the world would be prohibitively expensive, and our intellectual property rights in some countries outside the U.S. can be less extensive than those in the U.S. In addition, the laws of some foreign countries do not protect intellectual property rights to the same extent as federal and state laws in the U.S. Consequently, we may not be able to prevent third parties from practicing our inventions in all countries outside the U.S., or from selling or importing products made using our inventions in and into the U.S. or other jurisdictions. Indeed, Russia issued a decree in March of 2022, stating that patent owners who reside in a country “unfriendly” to Russia are not entitled to compensation in the event of patent infringement. Competitors may use our technologies in jurisdictions where we have not obtained patent protection to develop their own products and, further, may export otherwise infringing products to territories where we have patent protection but where enforcement is not as strong as that in the U.S. These products may compete with our products in jurisdictions where we do not have any issued patents and our patent claims or other intellectual property rights may not be effective or sufficient to prevent them from competing.

Many companies have encountered significant problems in protecting and defending intellectual property rights in foreign jurisdictions. The legal systems of certain countries, particularly certain developing countries, do not favor the enforcement of patents, trade secrets and other intellectual property protection, particularly those relating to biopharmaceutical products and/or methods of medical treatment, which could make it difficult for us to stop the infringement of our patents or marketing of competing products against third parties in violation of our proprietary rights generally. The initiation of proceedings by third parties to challenge the scope or validity of our patent rights in foreign jurisdictions could result in substantial cost and divert our efforts and attention from other aspects of our business. Proceedings to enforce our patent rights in foreign jurisdictions could result in substantial costs and divert our efforts and attention from other aspects of our business, could put our patents at risk of being invalidated or interpreted narrowly and our patent applications at risk of not issuing and could provoke third parties to assert claims against us. We may not prevail in any lawsuits that we initiate and the damages or other remedies awarded, if any, may not be commercially meaningful. Accordingly, our efforts to enforce our intellectual property rights around the world may be inadequate to obtain a significant commercial advantage from the intellectual property that we develop or license.

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As another example, in Europe, a new unitary patent system became effective in June 2023, which may significantly impact European patents, including those granted before the introduction of such a system. Under the unitary patent system, European applications have the option, upon grant of a patent, of becoming a Unitary Patent which will be subject to the jurisdiction of the UPC. As the UPC is a new court system, there is little precedent for the court, increasing the uncertainty of any litigation. Subject to current transitional provisions, European patents have the option of opting out of the jurisdiction of the UPC and remaining as national patents in the UPC countries. Patents that remain under the jurisdiction of the UPC are potentially vulnerable to a single UPC-based revocation challenge that, if successful, could invalidate the patent in all countries who are signatories to the UPC. We cannot predict with certainty the long-term effects of any potential changes.

Patent terms may result in inadequate protection for our product candidates, and we may be unable to obtain patent term extensions and data exclusivity for our product candidates, resulting in material harm to our business.

Patents have a limited lifespan. In the U.S., if all maintenance fees are timely paid, the natural expiration of a patent is generally 20 years from its earliest U.S. non-provisional filing date. Various extensions such as patent term adjustments and/or extensions, may be available, but the life of a patent, and the protection it affords, is limited.

Depending upon the timing, duration and specifics of any FDA marketing approval of any product candidates we may develop, one or more of our U.S. patents may be eligible for limited patent term extension under the Drug Price Competition and Patent Term Restoration Action of 1984, also known as the Hatch Waxman Amendments. The Hatch Waxman Amendments permit a patent extension term of up to five years as compensation for patent term lost during the FDA regulatory review process. The patent term restoration period is generally one-half of the time between the effective date of the IND or the date of patent grant (whichever is later) and the date of submission of the BLA, plus the time between the date of submission of the BLA and the date of FDA approval of the product. The patent holder must apply for restoration within 60 days of approval. A patent term extension cannot extend the remaining term of a patent beyond a total of 14 years from the date of product approval, only one patent may be extended and only those claims covering the approved drug, a method for using it, or a method for manufacturing it may be extended. We may not be granted an extension because of, for example, failing to exercise due diligence during the testing phase or regulatory review process, failing to apply within applicable deadlines, failing to apply prior to expiration of relevant patents, or otherwise failing to satisfy applicable requirements. Moreover, the applicable time period or the scope of patent protection afforded could be less than we request.

Given the amount of time required for the development, testing and regulatory review of new product candidates, the patents protecting our product candidates might expire before or shortly after such candidates are commercialized. If we are unable to obtain patent term extension or the term of any such extension is less than we request, our competitors may obtain approval of competing products following our patent expiration. As a result, our owned and licensed patent portfolio may not provide us with sufficient rights to exclude others from commercializing products similar or identical to ours, which could materially harm our business, financial condition, results of operations, and prospects.

If we are unable to protect the confidentiality of our trade secrets, our business and competitive position would be harmed.

In addition to patent protection, we rely heavily upon know-how and trade secret protection, as well as non-disclosure agreements and invention assignment agreements with our employees, consultants and third parties, to protect our confidential and proprietary information, especially where we do not believe patent protection is appropriate or obtainable. In addition to contractual measures, we try to protect the confidential nature of our proprietary information using physical and technological security measures. Such measures may not, for example, in the case of misappropriation of a trade secret by an employee or third-party with authorized access, provide adequate protection for our proprietary information. Our security measures may not prevent an employee or consultant from misappropriating our trade secrets and providing them to a competitor, and recourse we take against such misconduct may not provide an adequate remedy to protect our interests fully. Enforcing a claim that a party illegally disclosed or misappropriated a trade secret can be difficult, expensive, and time-consuming, and the outcome is unpredictable. In addition, trade secrets may be independently developed by others in a manner that could prevent legal recourse by us. If any of our confidential or proprietary information, such as our trade secrets, were to be disclosed or misappropriated, or if any such information was independently developed by a competitor, our competitive position could be harmed.

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In addition, courts outside the U.S. are sometimes less willing to protect trade secrets. If we choose to go to court to stop a third-party from using any of our trade secrets, we may incur substantial costs. These lawsuits may consume our time and other resources even if we are successful. Although we take steps to protect our proprietary information and trade secrets, including through contractual means with our employees and consultants, third parties may independently develop substantially equivalent proprietary information and techniques or otherwise gain access to our trade secrets or disclose our technology.

Thus, we may not be able to meaningfully protect our trade secrets. It is our policy to require our employees, consultants, outside scientific collaborators, sponsored researchers and other advisors to execute confidentiality agreements upon the commencement of employment or consulting relationships with us. These agreements provide that all confidential information concerning our business or financial affairs developed or made known to the individual or entity during the course of the party’s relationship with us is to be kept confidential and not disclosed to third parties except in specific circumstances. In the case of employees, the agreements provide that all inventions conceived by the individual, and which are related to our current or planned business or research and development or made during normal working hours, on our premises or using our equipment or proprietary information, are our exclusive property. In addition, we take other appropriate precautions, such as physical and technological security measures, to guard against misappropriation of our proprietary technology by third parties. We have also adopted policies and conduct training that provides guidance on our expectations, and our advice for best practices, in protecting our trade secrets.

Third parties may assert that our employees or consultants have wrongfully used, disclosed, or misappropriated their confidential information or trade secrets.

As is common in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical industries, we employ individuals who were previously employed at universities or other biopharmaceutical or pharmaceutical companies, including our competitors or potential competitors. Although no claims against us are currently pending, and although we try to ensure that our employees and consultants do not use the proprietary information or know-how of others in their work for us, we may be subject to claims that we or our employees, consultants or independent contractors have inadvertently or otherwise used or disclosed intellectual property, including trade secrets or other proprietary information, of a former employer or other third parties. Litigation may be necessary to defend against these claims. If we fail in defending any such claims, in addition to paying monetary damages, we may lose valuable intellectual property rights or personnel. Even if we are successful in defending against such claims, litigation or other legal proceedings relating to intellectual property claims may cause us to incur significant expenses, and could distract our technical and management personnel from their normal responsibilities. In addition, there could be public announcements of the results of hearings, motions or other interim proceedings or developments, and, if securities analysts or investors perceive these results to be negative, it could have a substantial adverse effect on the price of our common stock. This type of litigation or proceeding could substantially increase our operating losses and reduce our resources available for development activities. We may not have sufficient financial or other resources to adequately conduct such litigation or proceedings. Some of our competitors may be able to sustain the costs of such litigation or proceedings more effectively than we can because of their substantially greater financial resources. Uncertainties resulting from the initiation and continuation of patent litigation or other intellectual property related proceedings could adversely affect our ability to compete in the marketplace.

If our trademarks and trade names are not adequately protected, then we may not be able to build name recognition in our markets of interest and our business may be adversely affected.

Our trademarks or trade names may be challenged, infringed, circumvented or declared generic or determined to be infringing on other marks. We may not be able to protect our rights to these trademarks and trade names or may be forced to stop using these names, which we need for name recognition by potential partners or customers in our markets of interest. If we are unable to establish name recognition based on our trademarks and trade names, we may not be able to compete effectively and our business may be adversely affected.

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Risks Related to Our Financial Condition and Capital Requirements

We have incurred net losses in every year since our inception and anticipate that we will continue to incur net losses in the future.

We are a biopharmaceutical company formed in 2012 and our operations to date have been focused on research and development of monoclonal antibodies that selectively inhibit activation of growth factors for therapeutic effect. We have not yet demonstrated the ability to progress any of our product candidates through clinical trials, we have no products approved for commercial sale and we have not generated any revenue from product sales to date. We continue to incur significant research and development and other expenses related to our ongoing operations. As a result, we are not profitable and have incurred losses in each period since our inception. For the fiscal year ended December 31, 2025 and 2024, we reported a net loss of $377.9 million and $246.3 million, respectively. We have incurred losses since our inception, and as of December 31, 2025, we had an accumulated deficit of $1.3 billion. We expect to continue to incur significant losses for the foreseeable future, and we expect these losses to increase as we continue our research and development of, and seek regulatory approvals for, our product candidates, apitegromab, SRK-181, SRK-439, and any future product candidates and prepare for the commercialization of apitegromab, if approved.

To become and remain profitable, we or any current or potential future collaborators must develop and eventually commercialize products with significant market potential and favorable pricing. This will require us to be successful in a range of challenging activities, including completing preclinical studies and clinical trials, receiving marketing approval for product candidates, manufacturing, marketing and selling products for which we may receive marketing approval and satisfying any post-marketing requirements. We may never succeed in any or all of these activities and, even if we do, we may never generate revenue that is significant or large enough to achieve profitability. If we do achieve profitability, we may not be able to sustain or increase profitability on a quarterly or annual basis. Our failure to become and remain profitable could decrease the value of our company and could impair our ability to raise capital, maintain our research and development efforts, expand our business or continue our operations.

Even if we succeed in commercializing one or more of our product candidates, we will continue to incur substantial research and development and other expenditures to develop and market additional product candidates. We may encounter unforeseen expenses, difficulties, complications, delays and other unknown factors that may adversely affect our business. The size of our future net losses will depend, in part, on the rate of future growth of our expenses and our ability to generate revenue. Our prior losses and expected future losses have had and will continue to have an adverse effect on our stockholders’ equity and working capital.

We will require additional capital to fund our operations and if we fail to obtain necessary capital, we will not be able to complete the development and commercialization of apitegromab, SRK-181, SRK-439 and any future product candidates.

Our operations have consumed substantial amounts of cash since inception. We expect to continue to spend substantial amounts of cash to conduct further research and development, including clinical trials for apitegromab and preclinical studies and clinical trials for SRK-439 and any future product candidates, to seek regulatory approvals for our product candidates and to launch and commercialize any products for which we receive regulatory approval. As of December 31, 2025, we had approximately $367.6 million in cash, cash equivalents and marketable securities. Based on our current operating model, we believe that our existing cash, cash equivalents and marketable securities as of December 31, 2025, along with cash available to us, will be sufficient to fund our operating expenses and capital expenditure requirements into 2027. However, our future capital requirements and the period for which our existing resources will support our operations may vary significantly from what we expect, and we will in any event require additional capital in order to complete clinical development of any of our current programs. Our monthly spending levels will vary based on new and ongoing development and corporate activities. Because the length of time and activities associated with development of our product candidates is highly uncertain, we are unable to estimate the actual funds we will require for development and any approved marketing and commercialization activities. Additionally, any program setbacks or delays due to changes in federal or state laws or clinical site or clinical vendor policies as a result of the impacts of current macroeconomic and geopolitical events, increasing rates of inflation, tariff policies and rising interest rates could impact our programs and increase our expenditures. Our future funding requirements, both near and long-term, will depend on many factors, including, but not limited to:

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| ● | the initiation, progress, timing, completion, costs and results of clinical trials for our current and any future product candidates;

| ● | the clinical development plans we establish for our product candidates;

| ● | the number and characteristics of product candidates that we identify and develop;

| ● | the terms of any collaboration, strategic alliance, or licensing agreements we are currently party to or may choose to enter into in the future;

| ● | the outcome, timing and cost of meeting regulatory requirements established by the FDA, the EMA, and other comparable foreign regulatory authorities;

| ● | the cost of filing, prosecuting, defending and enforcing our patent claims and other intellectual property rights;

| ● | the cost of defending intellectual property disputes, including patent infringement actions brought by third parties against us or our product candidates;

| ● | the effect of competing technological and market developments;

| ● | the cost and timing of developing research cell lines and development and completion of commercial scale outsourced manufacturing activities;

| ● | the impact of any business interruptions to our operations, including the timing and enrollment of patients in our planned clinical trials, or to those of our manufacturers, suppliers, or other vendors resulting from pandemics or similar public health crises or macroeconomic conditions; and

| ● | the cost of establishing sales, marketing and distribution capabilities for any product candidates for which we may receive regulatory approval in regions where we choose to commercialize our products on our own.

We do not have any committed external source of funds or other support for our development efforts. Until we can generate sufficient product or royalty revenue to finance our cash requirements, which we may never do, we expect to finance our future cash needs through a combination of public or private equity offerings, debt financings, collaborations, strategic alliances, licensing arrangements and other marketing or distribution arrangements. If we raise additional funds through public or private equity offerings, the terms of these securities may include liquidation or other preferences that adversely affect our stockholders’ rights. Further, to the extent that we raise additional capital through the sale of common stock or securities convertible or exchangeable into common stock, your ownership interest will be diluted. In addition, any debt financing may subject us to fixed payment obligations and covenants limiting or restricting our ability to take specific actions, such as incurring additional debt, making capital expenditures or declaring dividends. If we raise additional capital through marketing and distribution arrangements or other collaborations, strategic alliances or licensing arrangements with third parties, we may have to relinquish certain valuable rights to our product candidates, technologies, future revenue streams or research programs or grant licenses on terms that may not be favorable to us. We also could be required to seek collaborators for apitegromab, SRK-181, SRK-439 or any future product candidate at an earlier stage than otherwise would be desirable or relinquish our rights to product candidates or technologies that we otherwise would seek to develop or commercialize ourselves. If we are unable to raise additional capital in sufficient amounts or on terms acceptable to us, we may have to significantly delay, scale back or discontinue the development or commercialization of apitegromab, SRK-181, SRK-439 or one or more of our future product candidates or other research and development initiatives. Any of the above events could significantly harm our business, prospects, financial condition and results of operations and cause the price of our common stock to decline.

Changes in tax law could adversely affect our business and financial condition.

The rules dealing with U.S. federal, state, and local income taxation are constantly under review by persons involved in the legislative process and by the Internal Revenue Service and the U.S. Treasury Department. For example, the One Big Beautiful Bill Act (“OBBBA”) was signed into law on July 4, 2025 and made significant changes to U.S. federal tax law. Changes to tax laws (which changes may have retroactive application) could adversely affect us or holders of our common stock. For example, under Section 174 of the Internal Revenue Code of 1986, as amended (the “Code”), in taxable years beginning after December 31, 2021, expenses that are incurred for research and development outside the U.S. will be capitalized and amortized, which may have an adverse effect on our cash flow. The OBBBA provides that

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for taxable years beginning after December 31, 2024, expenses that are incurred for research and development performed in the U.S. may, at the taxpayer’s election, be immediately deducted or capitalized and amortized. In addition, the OBBBA provides that for taxable years beginning after December 31, 2021 and before January 1, 2025, certain eligible taxpayers generally may elect to retroactively deduct expenses for research and development performed in the U.S. in such taxable years by filing amended tax returns for such taxable years, and all other taxpayers that are not eligible to make such an election and that amortized expenses for research and development performed in the U.S. in such taxable years generally may elect to accelerate and deduct the remaining unamortized amounts of such research and development expenses (i) in the first taxable year beginning after December 31, 2024, or (ii) ratably over the two-taxable year period beginning with the first taxable year beginning after December 31, 2024. In recent years, many changes to tax laws have been made and changes are likely to continue to occur in the future. Future changes in tax laws could have a material adverse effect on our business, cash flow, financial condition or results of operations. It cannot be predicted whether, when, in what form or with what effective dates tax laws, regulations and rulings may be enacted, promulgated or issued, which could result in an increase in our or our shareholders’ tax liability or require changes in the manner in which we operate in order to minimize or mitigate any adverse effects of changes in tax law. We urge investors to consult with their legal and tax advisers regarding the implications of potential changes in tax laws on an investment in our common stock.

Our ability to use our net operating loss carryforwards and certain tax credit carryforwards may be subject to limitation.

As of December 31, 2025, we had net operating loss carryforwards for U.S. federal and state income tax purposes of $921.9 million and $861.4 million, respectively, which begin to expire in 2032, except for our post 2017 U.S. federal net operating loss carryforwards of $871.4 million and $3.2 million of state net operating losses which do not expire. As of December 31, 2025, we also had available tax credit carryforwards for U.S. federal and state income tax purposes of $74.1 million and $10.4 million, respectively, which begin to expire in 2034 and 2032, respectively. Additionally, for taxable years beginning after December 31, 2017 the deductibility of the indefinite lived federal and state net operating losses is limited to 80% of our taxable income in any future taxable year. Under Section 382 of the Code, changes in our ownership may limit the amount of our net operating loss carryforwards and tax credit carryforwards that could be utilized annually to offset our future taxable income, if any. This limitation would generally apply in the event of a cumulative change in ownership of our company of more than 50% within a three-year period. Any such limitation may significantly reduce our ability to utilize our net operating loss carryforwards and tax credit carryforwards before they expire. Private placements and other transactions that have occurred since our inception, as well as our IPO, may trigger such an ownership change pursuant to Section 382 of the Code. Any such limitation, whether as the result of our IPO, prior private placements, sales of our common stock by our existing stockholders or additional sales of our common stock by us, could have a material adverse effect on our results of operations in future years.

Adverse developments affecting the financial services industry, such as actual events or concerns involving liquidity, defaults, or non-performance by financial institutions or transactional counterparties, could adversely affect our current and projected business operations and our financial condition and results of operations.

Actual events involving limited liquidity, defaults, non-performance or other adverse developments that affect financial institutions, transactional counterparties or other companies in the financial services industry or the financial services industry generally, or concerns or rumors about any events of these kinds or other similar risks, have in the past and may in the future lead to market-wide liquidity problems. For example, on March 10, 2023, SVB was closed by the California Department of Financial Protection and Innovation, which appointed the FDIC as receiver. Similarly, on March 12, 2023, Signature Bank and Silvergate Capital Corp. were each swept into receivership. Since then, additional financial institutions have experienced similar failures and have been placed into receivership.

Inflation and rapid increases in interest rates have led to a decline in the trading value of previously issued government securities with interest rates below current market interest rates. Although the U.S. Department of Treasury, FDIC and Federal Reserve Board have announced a program to provide up to $25 billion of loans to financial institutions secured by certain of such government securities held by financial institutions to mitigate the risk of potential losses on the sale of such instruments, widespread demands for customer withdrawals or other liquidity needs of financial institutions for immediate liquidity may exceed the capacity of such program. Additionally, there is no guarantee that the U.S.

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Department of Treasury, FDIC and Federal Reserve Board will provide access to uninsured funds in the future in the event of the closure of other banks or financial institutions, or that they would do so in a timely fashion.

Although we assess our banking relationships as we believe necessary or appropriate, our access to funding sources and other credit arrangements in amounts adequate to finance or capitalize our current and projected future business operations could be significantly impaired by factors that affect the Company, the financial institutions with which the Company has credit agreements or arrangements directly, or the financial services industry or economy in general. These factors could include, among others, events such as liquidity constraints or failures, the ability to perform obligations under various types of financial, credit or liquidity agreements or arrangements, disruptions or instability in the financial services industry or financial markets, or concerns or negative expectations about the prospects for companies in the financial services industry. These factors could involve financial institutions or financial services industry companies with which the Company has financial or business relationships, but could also include factors involving financial markets or the financial services industry generally.

The results of events or concerns that involve one or more of these factors could include a variety of material and adverse impacts on our current and projected business operations and our financial condition and results of operations. These could include, but may not be limited to, the following:

| ● | delayed access to deposits or other financial assets or the uninsured loss of deposits or other financial assets;

| ● | delayed or lost access to, or reductions in borrowings available under our existing debt facility; or

| ● | potential or actual breach of contractual obligations that require the Company to maintain certain financial accounts at specific financial institutions.

In addition, investor concerns regarding the U.S. or international financial systems could result in less favorable commercial financing terms, including higher interest rates or costs and tighter financial and operating covenants, or systemic limitations on access to credit and liquidity sources, thereby making it more difficult for us to acquire financing on acceptable terms or at all. Any decline in available funding or access to our cash and liquidity resources could, among other risks, adversely impact our ability to meet our operating expenses, financial obligations or fulfill our other obligations, result in breaches of our financial and/or contractual obligations or result in violations of federal or state wage and hour laws. Any of these impacts, or any other impacts resulting from the factors described above or other related or similar factors not described above, could have material adverse impacts on our liquidity and our current and/or projected business operations and financial condition and results of operations.

In addition, any further deterioration in the macroeconomic economy or financial services industry could lead to losses or defaults by our suppliers, which in turn, could have a material adverse effect on our current and/or projected business operations and results of operations and financial condition. For example, a supplier could be adversely affected by any of the liquidity or other risks that are described above as factors that could result in material adverse impacts on us, including but not limited to delayed access or loss of access to uninsured deposits or loss of the ability to draw on existing credit facilities involving a troubled or failed financial institution. Any supplier bankruptcy or insolvency, or any breach or default by a supplier, or the loss of any significant supplier relationships, could result in material losses to us and may have a material adverse impact on our business.

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Our current investment policy focuses on preservation of capital. However, we could recognize losses on securities held in our investment portfolio, particularly if interest rates increase or economic and market conditions deteriorate.

As of December 31, 2025, the fair value of our cash, cash equivalents and investments in our marketable debt securities portfolio was approximately $367.6 million and consisted primarily of investments in money market funds and U.S. treasury obligations and government agency securities. Factors beyond our control can significantly influence the fair value of securities in our portfolio and can cause potential adverse changes to the fair value of these securities. For example, fixed-rate securities acquired by us are generally subject to decreases in market value when interest rates rise. Additional factors include, but are not limited to, rating agency downgrades of the securities or our own analysis of the value of the security, defaults by the issuer with respect to the underlying securities, and continued instability in the credit markets. Any of the foregoing factors could cause other-than-temporary impairment in future periods and result in realized losses. The process for determining whether impairment is other-than-temporary usually requires difficult, subjective judgments about the future financial performance of the issuer and any collateral underlying the security in order to assess the probability of receiving all contractual principal and interest payments on the security.

As of December 31, 2025, we had $0 in net unrealized losses in our marketable securities available-for-sale portfolio, and unrealized losses in our securities portfolio may increase in the future due to the aforementioned economic factors. While our goal is to hold each security until maturity, that may not be possible in light of our policy to preserve capital and liquidity and because investment in securities with unrealized losses has a diminished utility as a source of liquidity prior to maturity. Selling securities with an unrealized loss would result in the realization of such losses, which could have an adverse effect on our financial condition and results of operations.

The terms of our loan agreements place restrictions on our operating and financial flexibility. If we raise additional capital through debt financing, the terms of any new debt could further restrict our ability to operate our business.

On February 27, 2026, we terminated our previous Amended and Restated Loan and Security Agreement, dated as of February 10, 2025 with Oxford Finance LLC (“Oxford” and such agreement, as amended, the “Existing Loan Agreement”) and entered into a Financing Agreement (the “Financing Agreement”) with certain funds managed by Blue Owl Capital Corporation (“Blue Owl”). Concurrently with the entry into the Financing Agreement, we also entered into a Pledge and Security Agreement (the “Security Agreement”, together with the Financing Agreement, the “2026 Loan Agreement”) with Blue Owl.

The 2026 Loan Agreement currently provides us with up to $350.0 million of borrowing capacity. Our overall leverage and certain obligations and affirmative and negative covenants contained in the related documentation could adversely affect our financial health and business and future operations by limiting our ability to, among other things, satisfy our obligations under the 2026 Loan Agreement, refinance our debt on terms acceptable to us or at all, plan for and adjust to changing business, industry and market conditions, use our available cash flow to fund future acquisitions and make dividend payments, and obtain additional financing for working capital, to fund growth or for general corporate purposes, even when necessary to maintain adequate liquidity.

If we default under the 2026 Loan Agreement, Blue Owl may accelerate all of our repayment obligations and exercise all of their rights and remedies under the 2026 Loan Agreement and applicable law, potentially requiring us to renegotiate our agreement on terms less favorable to us. Further, if we are liquidated, the lenders’ right to repayment would be senior to the rights of the holders of our common stock to receive any proceeds from the liquidation. Blue Owl could declare a default upon the occurrence of customary events of default, including payment defaults, breaches of certain affirmative or negative covenants, material contract terminations, and withdrawal events, subject in certain cases to grace periods, cure mechanics, exceptions and thresholds, thereby requiring us to repay the loan immediately. Any declaration by the lender of an event of default could significantly harm our business and prospects and could cause the price of our common stock to decline. Additionally, if we raise any additional debt financing, the terms of such additional debt could further restrict our operating and financial flexibility.

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Risks Related to Our Common Stock

The price of our stock is volatile, and you could lose all or part of your investment.

Similar to the trading prices of the common stock of other biopharmaceutical companies, the trading price of our common stock is subject to wide fluctuations in response to various factors, some of which are beyond our control, including limited trading volume. In addition to the factors discussed in this “Risk Factors” section and elsewhere in this Annual Report on Form 10-K, these factors include:

| ● | announcements of significant acquisitions, strategic collaborations or partnerships, joint ventures or capital commitments by us, our collaborators or our competitors;

| ● | actual or anticipated variations in quarterly operating results or our cash position;

| ● | our failure to meet the estimates and projections of the investment community or that we may otherwise provide to the public;

| ● | changes in accounting practices; and

| ● | significant lawsuits, including patent or stockholder litigation.

In addition, the stock market in general, and the market for biopharmaceutical companies in particular, have experienced extreme price and volume fluctuations that have often been unrelated or disproportionate to the operating performance of these companies. Broad market and industry factors may negatively affect the market price of our common stock, regardless of our actual operating performance. In the past, securities class action litigation has often been instituted against companies following periods of volatility in the market price of a company’s securities. This type of litigation, if instituted, could result in substantial costs and a diversion of management’s attention and resources, which would harm our business, operating results or financial condition.

We do not intend to pay dividends on our common stock so any returns will be limited to the value of our stock.

We currently anticipate that we will retain future earnings for the development, operation and expansion of our business and do not anticipate declaring or paying any cash dividends for the foreseeable future. Furthermore, our ability to pay cash dividends is currently restricted by the terms of our debt facility with Blue Owl, and future debt or other financing arrangements may contain terms prohibiting or limiting the amount of dividends that may be declared or paid on our common stock. Any return to stockholders will therefore be limited to the appreciation of their stock.

The members of our board of directors, management, and their affiliates, own a significant percentage of our stock and will be able to exert significant control over matters subject to stockholder approval.

As of December 31, 2025, our executive officers, directors and their affiliates beneficially hold, in the aggregate, approximately 8% of our outstanding voting stock. These stockholders, acting together, are able to significantly influence all matters requiring stockholder approval. For example, these stockholders are able to significantly influence elections of directors, amendments of our organizational documents, or approval of any merger, sale of assets, or other major corporate transaction. This may prevent or discourage unsolicited acquisition proposals or offers for our common stock that you may feel are in your best interest as one of our stockholders.

We no longer qualify as a smaller reporting company as of January 1, 2026, which will increase our costs and demands on management.

Based on the market value of our common stock held by our non-affiliates as of June 30, 2025, we are no longer a smaller reporting company as of January 1, 2026, and thus will be subject to additional disclosure and compliance requirements beginning with our Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q for the quarter ended March 31, 2026. Due to this upcoming transition, we expect to devote significant time and effort to implement and comply with the additional standards, rules and regulations that will apply to us upon losing our smaller reporting company status. Compliance with the additional requirements will also increase our legal, accounting and financial compliance costs.

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As a smaller reporting company, we availed ourselves of the exemption from the requirement that our independent registered public accounting firm attest to the effectiveness of our internal control over financial reporting under Section 404 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002. Upon losing our smaller reporting company status beginning with our Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q for the quarter ended March 31, 2026, we will no longer be able to rely on the scaled disclosure requirements and other accommodations available to smaller reporting companies. This may require us to provide additional disclosures in our periodic reports, including more detailed executive compensation disclosures and additional financial statement information. The transition from smaller reporting company status will require significant resources, including additional personnel, enhanced systems and processes, and increased professional fees for accounting, legal, and compliance services. We will need to implement more comprehensive internal controls and procedures to meet the heightened requirements applicable to larger public companies. Due to the complexity and logistical difficulty of implementing the standards, rules and regulations that apply to non-smaller reporting companies, there is an increased risk that we may be found to be in non-compliance with such standards, rules and regulations or to have significant deficiencies or material weaknesses in our internal controls over financial reporting. Any failure to maintain effective disclosure controls and internal control over financial reporting could materially and adversely affect our business, results of operations and financial condition, and could cause a decline in the trading price of our common stock.

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We expect to continue to incur increased costs as a result of operating as a public company, and our management is required to devote substantial time to compliance initiatives.

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As a public company, we incur significant legal, accounting and other expenses. In addition, the Sarbanes-Oxley Act and rules subsequently implemented by the SEC and Nasdaq have imposed various requirements on public companies, including establishment and maintenance of effective disclosure and financial controls and corporate governance practices. Our management and other personnel devote a substantial amount of time to these compliance initiatives. These rules and regulations have significantly increased our legal and financial compliance costs and we anticipate that these activities will become more time-consuming and costly over time now that we no longer qualify as an emerging growth company.

Pursuant to Section 404 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act, we will be required to furnish a report by our management on our internal control over financial reporting. Our independent registered public accounting firm will not be required to formally attest to the effectiveness of our internal control over financial reporting pursuant to Section 404 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act until the date we report at least $100 million in annual revenues and have a public float of at least $75 million for the most recent fiscal year or have a public float of at least $700 million for the most recent fiscal year. To achieve compliance with Section 404 within the prescribed period, we are engaged in a process to document and evaluate our internal control over financial reporting, which is both costly and challenging. In this regard, we will need to continue to dedicate internal resources, engage outside consultants and adopt a detailed work plan to assess and document the adequacy of internal control over financial reporting, continue steps to improve control processes as appropriate, validate through testing that controls are functioning as documented and implement a continuous reporting and improvement process for internal control over financial reporting. Despite our efforts, there is a risk that neither we nor our independent registered public accounting firm will be able to conclude within the prescribed timeframe that our internal control over financial reporting is effective as required by Section 404. This could result in an adverse reaction to the trading price of our common stock in the financial markets due to a loss of confidence in the reliability of our financial statements.

If we fail to maintain an effective system of internal control over financial reporting, we may not be able to accurately report our financial results or prevent fraud. As a result, stockholders could lose confidence in our financial and other public reporting, which would harm our business and the trading price of our common stock.

Effective internal controls over financial reporting are necessary for us to provide reliable financial reports and, together with adequate disclosure controls and procedures, are designed to prevent fraud. Any failure to implement required new or improved controls, or difficulties encountered in their implementation could cause us to fail to meet our reporting obligations. In addition, any testing by us conducted in connection with Section 404, or any subsequent testing by our independent registered public accounting firm, may reveal deficiencies in our internal controls over financial reporting that are deemed to be material weaknesses or that may require prospective or retroactive changes to our financial statements or identify other areas for further attention or improvement. Inferior internal controls could also cause

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investors to lose confidence in our reported financial information, which could have a negative effect on the trading price of our stock.

We are required to disclose changes made in our internal controls and procedures on a quarterly basis and our management will be required to assess the effectiveness of these controls annually. However, if we were to ever regain status as a “smaller reporting company”, our independent registered public accounting firm would not be required to attest to the effectiveness of our internal controls over financial reporting pursuant to Section 404. We will qualify as a “smaller reporting company” if the market value of our common stock held by non-affiliates is below $250 million (or $700 million if our annual revenue is less than $100 million) as of June 30 in any given year. An independent assessment of the effectiveness of our internal controls over financial reporting could detect problems that our management’s assessment might not. Undetected material weaknesses in our internal controls over financial reporting could lead to financial statement restatements and require us to incur the expense of remediation.

We have broad discretion in the use of our existing cash, cash equivalents and marketable securities and may not use them effectively.

Our management has broad discretion in the application of our existing cash, cash equivalents and marketable securities. Because of the number and variability of factors that will determine our use of our existing cash and cash equivalents, their ultimate use may vary substantially from their currently intended use. Our management might not apply our existing cash and cash equivalents in ways that ultimately increase the value of your investment. The failure by our management to apply these funds effectively could harm our business.

Anti-takeover provisions under our charter documents and Delaware law could delay or prevent a change of control which could limit the market price of our common stock and may prevent or frustrate attempts by our stockholders to replace or remove our current management.

Our amended and restated certificate of incorporation and amended and restated bylaws contain provisions that could delay or prevent a change of control of our company or changes in our board of directors that our stockholders might consider favorable. Some of these provisions include:

| ● | a board of directors divided into three classes serving staggered three-year terms, such that not all members of the board will be elected at one time;

| ● | a prohibition on stockholder action through written consent, which requires that all stockholder actions be taken at a meeting of our stockholders;

| ● | a requirement that special meetings of stockholders be called only by the chairman of the board of directors, the chief executive officer, or by a majority of the total number of authorized directors;

| ● | advance notice requirements for stockholder proposals and nominations for election to our board of directors;

| ● | a requirement that no member of our board of directors may be removed from office by our stockholders except for cause and, in addition to any other vote required by law, upon the approval of not less than two thirds of all outstanding shares of our voting stock then entitled to vote in the election of directors;

| ● | a requirement of approval of not less than two thirds of all outstanding shares of our voting stock to amend any bylaws by stockholder action or to amend specific provisions of our amended and restated certificate of incorporation; and

| ● | the authority of the board of directors to issue convertible preferred stock on terms determined by the board of directors without stockholder approval and which convertible preferred stock may include rights superior to the rights of the holders of common stock.

In addition, because we are incorporated in Delaware, we are governed by the provisions of Section 203 of the Delaware General Corporation Law, which may prohibit certain business combinations with stockholders owning 15% or more of our outstanding voting stock. These anti-takeover provisions and other provisions in our amended and restated certificate of incorporation and amended and restated bylaws could make it more difficult for stockholders or potential acquirers to obtain control of our board of directors or initiate actions that are opposed by the then current board of directors and

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could also delay or impede a merger, tender offer or proxy contest involving our company. These provisions could also discourage proxy contests and make it more difficult for you and other stockholders to elect directors of your choosing or cause us to take other corporate actions you desire. Any delay or prevention of a change of control transaction or changes in our board of directors could cause the market price of our common stock to decline.

If securities or industry analysts publish inaccurate or unfavorable research about our business, our stock price and trading volume could decline.

The trading market for our common stock depends in part on the research and reports that securities or industry analysts publish about us or our business. If one or more of the analysts who covers us downgrades our stock or publishes inaccurate or unfavorable research about our business, our stock price may decline. If one or more of these analysts ceases coverage of our company or fails to publish reports on us regularly, demand for our stock could decrease, which might cause our stock price and trading volume to decline.

We may be subject to securities litigation, which is expensive and could divert management attention.

The market price of our common stock may be volatile. The stock market in general, and Nasdaq and biopharmaceutical companies in particular, have experienced extreme price and volume fluctuations that have often been unrelated or disproportionate to the operating performance of these companies. In the past, companies that have experienced volatility in the market price of their stock have been subject to securities class action litigation. We may be the target of this type of litigation in the future. Securities litigation against us could result in substantial costs and divert our management’s attention from other business concerns, which could seriously harm our business.

Our amended and restated bylaws contain certain exclusive forum provisions requiring that substantially all disputes between us and our stockholders be resolved in certain judicial forums, which could limit our stockholders’ ability to obtain a favorable judicial forum for disputes with us or our directors, officers or employees.

Our amended and restated bylaws provide that the Court of Chancery of the State of Delaware will be the exclusive forum for any derivative action or proceeding brought on our behalf, any action asserting a breach of fiduciary duty, any action asserting a claim against us arising pursuant to the Delaware General Corporation Law, our amended and restated certificate of incorporation or our bylaws, any action to interpret, apply, enforce, or determine the validity of our amended and restated certificate of incorporation or bylaws, or any action asserting a claim against us that is governed by the internal affairs doctrine. In addition, our amended and restated bylaws contain a provision by virtue of which, unless we consent in writing to the selection of an alternative forum, the U.S. District Court for the District of Massachusetts will be the exclusive forum for any complaint asserting a cause of action arising under the Securities Act. In addition, our amended and restated bylaws provide that any person or entity purchasing or otherwise acquiring any interest in shares of our common stock is deemed to have notice of and consented to the foregoing provisions, however, stockholders cannot and will not be deemed to have waived compliance with federal securities laws and the rules and regulations thereunder. We have chosen the U.S. District Court for the District of Massachusetts as the exclusive forum for such causes of action because our principal executive offices are located in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Some companies that have adopted similar federal district court forum selection provisions have had such provisions challenged in legal proceedings by stockholders. While the Delaware Supreme Court ruled in March 2020 in Salzburg et al. v. Sciabacucchi that federal forum selection provisions purporting to require claims under the Securities Act be brought in federal court are “facially valid” under Delaware law, there is uncertainty as to whether other courts will enforce our federal forum selection provision, and we may incur additional costs of litigation should such enforceability be challenged. If the federal forum selection provision is otherwise found inapplicable to, or unenforceable in respect of, one or more of the specified actions or proceedings, we may incur additional costs, which could have an adverse effect on our business, financial condition or results of operations. We recognize that the federal district court forum selection clause may impose additional litigation costs on stockholders who assert the provision is not enforceable and may impose more general additional litigation costs in pursuing any such claims, particularly if the stockholders do not reside in or near the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. Additionally, the choice of forum provision may limit a stockholder’s ability to bring a claim in a judicial forum that it finds favorable for disputes with us or our directors, officers or other employees, which may discourage such lawsuits against us and our directors, officers and other employees. Alternatively, if a court were to find the choice of forum provision contained in our amended and restated bylaws to be

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inapplicable or unenforceable in an action, we may incur additional costs associated with resolving such action in other jurisdictions, which could adversely affect our business and financial condition.

We have issued a substantial number of warrants and equity awards from our equity plans which are exercisable into shares of our common stock which could result in substantial dilution to the ownership interests of our existing stockholders.

As of December 31, 2025, approximately 250,000 shares of our common stock were reserved for issuance upon exercise of outstanding common stock purchase warrants. As of December 31, 2025, approximately 17,362,147 shares of our common stock were reserved for issuance upon exercise of pre-funded warrants, which are already included in our calculation of our weighted average common shares outstanding. Additionally, 12,229,399 shares of our common stock were reserved for issuance upon exercise of outstanding stock options, vested restricted stock units and vested performance stock units. The exercise of these securities will result in a significant increase in the number of outstanding shares and substantially dilute the ownership interests of our existing stockholders. The shares underlying the equity awards from our equity plans are registered on a Form S-8 registration statement. As a result, upon vesting these shares can be freely exercised and sold in the public market upon issuance, subject to volume limitations applicable to affiliates. The exercise of options and the subsequent sale of the underlying common stock could cause a decline in our stock price.

Sales of a substantial number of shares of our common stock in the public market could cause our stock price to fall.

The sales of a substantial number of the shares and/or the exercise and sale of a substantial number of the pre-funded warrants and common stock purchase warrants in the public market or the perception that these sales might occur could depress the market price of our common stock and could impair our ability to raise capital through the sale of additional equity securities. We are unable to predict the effect that sales may have on the prevailing market price of our common stock. In addition, the sale of substantial amounts of our common stock could adversely impact the price of our common stock. The sale, or the availability for sale, of a large number of shares of our common stock in the public market could cause the price of our common stock to decline.

The sale or issuance of our common stock to, or through, Jefferies may cause significant dilution and the sale of the shares of common stock acquired by Jefferies, or the perception that such sales may occur, could cause the price of our common stock to fall.

On November 14, 2022, we entered into a sales agreement with Jefferies LLC (“Jefferies”), pursuant to which we may offer and sell our common stock, subject to certain limitations in the sales agreement and compliance with applicable law, at any time throughout the term of the sales agreement. The number of shares that are sold by Jefferies after delivering a placement notice will fluctuate based on the market price of the common stock during the sales period and limits we set with Jefferies. Because the price per share of each share sold will fluctuate based on the market price of our common stock during the sales period, it is not possible at this stage to predict the number of shares that will be ultimately issued. Sales to, or through, Jefferies by us could result in substantial dilution to the interests of other holders of our common stock. Additionally, the sale of a substantial number of shares of our common stock, or the anticipation of such sales, could make it more difficult for us to sell equity or equity-related securities in the future at a time and at a price that we might otherwise wish to effect sales.

From January 1, 2025 through December 31, 2025, we sold 2,767,000 shares of our common stock resulting in net proceeds to us of $91.7 million pursuant to the Jefferies sales agreement.

​

Item 1B. Unresolved Staff Comments

None.

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Item 1C. Cybersecurity

Cyber Risk Management and Strategy

​

We have processes for assessing, identifying and managing cybersecurity risks, which are informed by industry standards and built into our overall enterprise risk management function and are designed to help protect our information assets and operations from internal and external cyber threats, and to protect employee, collaborator and patient information from unauthorized access or attack.

​

We maintain a team of internal and external information technology specialists who are responsible for the design, implementation, and operation of our information technology ecosystem and cybersecurity governance processes. We engage with certain external parties, including consultants, computer security firms and risk management advisors, peer companies, and industry groups in an effort to enhance our cybersecurity oversight and risk management strategy. We also use security technologies, including third-party solutions and monitoring tools that are designed to identify and mitigate cybersecurity risks. Further, we regularly engage third parties to conduct penetration testing, security assessments and tabletop exercises. We also engage a virtual chief information security officer (“vCISO”) to support and advise on our cybersecurity program. We have a process to consider the internal risk oversight programs of critical third-party service providers, including through security questionnaires and contractual requirements, as appropriate. In addition, in an effort to deter and detect cyber threats, we have implemented an annual training program to provide employees with data protection, cybersecurity and incident response and prevention training.

​

We have not identified any cybersecurity incidents or threats that have materially affected us or are reasonably likely to materially affect us, including our business strategy, results of operations, or financial condition. However, like other companies in our industry, we and our third-party vendors have from time to time experienced threats and security incidents. For more information, please see the section entitled “Risk Factors.”

​

Governance Related to Cybersecurity Risks

The Audit Committee of our Board of Directors provides direct oversight over cybersecurity risk and provides updates to the Board of Directors regarding such oversight. The Audit Committee receives periodic updates from management, including from our Vice President, Information Technology (the “VP of IT”), regarding cybersecurity matters, such as relevant cybersecurity risk assessments, as applicable. We have established a process for the Audit Committee to be notified in the event of significant cybersecurity threats or incidents.

​

The VP of IT leads the operational oversight of company-wide cybersecurity strategy, policies, processes, and support staff. Additionally, the VP of IT works across all relevant departments to assess and help prepare us and our employees to address cybersecurity risks. The VP of IT reports and provides regular updates to the Chief Operations Officer and Chief Financial Officer on the cybersecurity program as well as periodic updates to executive management, as needed. Our VP of IT has worked in the information technology field for over 20 years at biotechnology companies including publicly-traded organizations.

​

Item 2. Properties

Our corporate headquarters and operations are located in Cambridge, Massachusetts.

In November 2019, we entered into a lease of laboratory and office space at 301 Binney Street in Cambridge, Massachusetts to be used as our new corporate headquarters. The expiration date was originally in August 2025 and included an option to extend the term by two years. In May 2024, we entered into the First Amendment to the Lease to extend the term for approximately two years, commencing on August 19, 2025 with an option to extend the term by five years.

We believe that our existing facility is adequate to meet our current needs, and that suitable additional space will be available as and when needed.

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Item 3. Legal Proceedings

From time to time, we are subject to various legal proceedings and claims that arise in the ordinary course of our business activities. Although the results of litigation and claims cannot be predicted with certainty, as of the date of this Annual Report, we do not believe we are party to any claim or litigation the outcome of which, if determined adversely to us, would individually or in the aggregate be reasonably expected to have a material adverse effect on our business. Regardless of the outcome, litigation can have an adverse impact on us because of defense and settlement costs, diversion of management resources and other factors.

Item 4. Mine Safety Disclosures

Not applicable.

​

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PART II

Item 5. Market for Registrant’s Common Equity, Related Stockholder Matters and Issuer Purchases of Equity Securities

Market Information

Our common stock is traded on the Nasdaq Global Select Market under the symbol “SRRK”. Trading of our common stock commenced on May 24, 2018, following the completion of our IPO. Prior to that time, there was no established public trading market for our common stock.

Stockholders

As of February 26, 2026, there were approximately four stockholders of record of our common stock. This number does not include beneficial owners whose shares are held in street name.

Dividends

We have never declared or paid any dividends to our stockholders since our inception and we do not plan to declare or pay cash dividends in the foreseeable future. We currently anticipate that we will retain all available funds and any future earnings for the operation and expansion of our business. Furthermore, our ability to pay cash dividends is currently restricted by the terms of our debt facility with Blue Owl. Any future determination related to dividend policy will be made at the discretion of our board of directors and will depend on, among other factors, our results of operations, financial condition, capital requirements, contractual restrictions, business prospects and other factors our board of directors may deem relevant. Investors should not purchase our common stock with the expectation of receiving cash dividends.

Equity Compensation Plans

The information required under this item is incorporated herein by reference to Item 12 of Part III of this Annual Report, such information to be provided in the Company’s definitive proxy statement pursuant to Regulation 14A, which proxy statement will be filed with the SEC not later than 120 days after the close of the Company’s fiscal year ended December 31, 2025.

Unregistered Sales of Securities

Not applicable.

Issuer Purchases of Equity Securities

None.

Item 6. Reserved

Not applicable.

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Item 7. Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations

The information contained in this section has been derived from our consolidated financial statements and should be read together with our consolidated financial statements and related notes included elsewhere in this Annual Report on Form 10-K. This Annual Report on Form 10-K contains forward-looking statements within the meaning of Section 27A of the Securities Act of 1933, as amended, and Section 21E of the Securities and Exchange Act of 1934, as amended, the “Exchange Act” and are subject to the “safe harbor” created by those sections. In particular, statements contained in this Annual Report on Form 10-K that are not historical facts, including, but not limited to statements regarding our future expectations, plans and prospects, including without limitation, our expectations regarding the potential of the TGFβ program, the potential of apitegromab as a therapy in SMA and the timeline for and progress in developing apitegromab, the potential of SRK-181 as a cancer immunotherapy and the timeline for and progress in developing SRK-181, the potential for our anti-myostatin program as a therapy in cardiometabolic disorders, and liquidity, constitute forward-looking statements and are made under these safe harbor provisions. Some of the forward-looking statements can be identified by the use of forward-looking terms such as "believes," "expects," "may," "will," "should," "could," "seek," "intends," "plans," "estimates," "anticipates," or other comparable terms. Forward-looking statements involve inherent risks and uncertainties, which could cause actual results to differ materially from those in the forward-looking statements. We caution readers not to place undue reliance upon any such forward-looking statements, which speak only as of the date made. We urge you to consider the risks and uncertainties discussed in greater detail under the heading "Risk Factors" elsewhere in this Annual Report on Form 10-K in evaluating our forward-looking statements. We have no plans to update our forward-looking statements to reflect events or circumstances after the date of this report. As a result of many factors, including those factors set forth under the heading "Risk Factors" elsewhere in this Annual Report on Form 10-K, our actual results could differ materially from the results described in or implied by the forward-looking statements contained in the following discussion and analysis.

Overview

We are a global biopharmaceutical company dedicated to improving the lives of children and adults with SMA and additional rare, severe and debilitating neuromuscular diseases. As a leader in the biology of TGFβ superfamily, our novel understanding of the molecular mechanisms of growth factor activation enabled the development of a proprietary platform for the discovery and development of monoclonal antibodies that locally and selectively target the precursor, or latent, forms of growth factors. Based on our innovative, proprietary, and scalable technology platform, we are building a world-leading anti-myostatin pipeline.

​

Our lead pipeline product candidates include apitegromab, a subcutaneous formulation of apitegromab, and SRK-439.

Apitegromab is a novel, investigational, fully human monoclonal antibody that inhibits myostatin activation by selectively binding the pro- and latent forms of myostatin in skeletal muscle. Myostatin is a catabolic agent that functions as a negative regulator of muscle mass, therefore inhibition of myostatin results in increased muscle mass and strength. Apitegromab is in development for the treatment of people with SMA and for the treatment of people with FSHD.

​

In October 2024, we announced positive top-line results in SAPPHIRE, a pivotal Phase 3 clinical trial to evaluate the efficacy and safety of apitegromab in patients with non-ambulatory Type 2 and Type 3 SMA (which is estimated to represent the majority of the current prevalent SMA patient population in the U.S. and Europe). The study achieved its primary endpoint. At the March 2025 Muscular Dystrophy Association Clinical & Scientific Conference, we presented additional data from secondary endpoint analyses in which apitegromab demonstrated a clinically meaningful and consistent benefit in motor function across pre-specified patient subgroups. We submitted a BLA to the FDA in January 2025 and the BLA was granted priority review designation. Priority review designation conveys that the FDA has determined that if apitegromab is approved, it could offer significant improvement in the safety or effectiveness of treatment of the serious condition of SMA. In September 2025, we received a CRL from the FDA related to observations identified during an FDA site inspection of a third-party fill-finish facility. The facility was issued a Form 483 by the FDA in July 2025 and the inspection classification of this facility is OAI. The observations were related to the facility and were not specific to apitegromab. The CRL did not cite any other approvability concerns, including apitegromab’s efficacy and safety data or the third-party drug substance manufacturer. In November 2025, we completed an in-person

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Type A meeting with the FDA that included participation of representatives from the third-party fill-finish facility. Also in November 2025, the third-party fill-finish facility received a warning letter from the FDA and continues to work with the FDA to resolve the outstanding issues cited in the warning letter. We plan to resubmit the apitegromab BLA at such time after the facility resolves the cGMP deficiencies identified in the CRL, however, there can be no guarantee of the timing of the facility’s resolution of those deficiencies or that the FDA will approve apitegromab upon our resubmission of the BLA. In March 2025 we submitted to the EMA and received validation of our MAA for apitegromab for the treatment of SMA. Validation confirms that the application includes the essential regulatory elements required for scientific assessment of the MAA and the scientific evaluation process by the EMA’s Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use can begin. If apitegromab is approved by the FDA or EMA, we expect to initiate a commercial product launch in the applicable jurisdictions upon approval.

​

A Phase 2 study evaluating apitegromab in patients with FSHD is expected to initiate in mid-2026. We see potential for apitegromab broadly in additional rare, severe, and debilitating neuromuscular diseases where muscle atrophy is a key component of disease pathogenesis, and we are actively exploring indications beyond SMA and FSHD.

​

In addition to the current IV formulation, we are developing a SC formulation of apitegromab. A Phase 1 study in healthy volunteers has been completed, demonstrating that SC apitegromab has favorable bioavailability and a comparable pharmacodynamic profile relative to IV apitegromab. Further development activities are ongoing, including planned FDA and EMA regulatory engagements.

​

Our clinical-stage pipeline also includes SRK-439, a novel, investigational, subcutaneously administered fully human anti-pro/latent myostatin antibody that has high inhibitory potency while maintaining selectivity towards myostatin. SRK-439 is being developed for the treatment of patients with rare, severe, and debilitating neuromuscular diseases. A Phase 1 study of SRK-439 in healthy volunteers is currently underway, with topline data anticipated in the second half of 2026.

Beyond our clinical-stage product candidates, our early-stage pipeline includes additional programs for the treatment of patients with rare, severe, and debilitating neuromuscular diseases.

As we focus our strategy on rare neuromuscular diseases, we are currently seeking partnerships for our additional programs. These programs include: SRK-181, a Phase 2-ready investigational inhibitor of latent TGFβ1 in development for the treatment of patients with solid tumors that are resistant to anti-PD-(L)1 antibody therapies; SRK-373, an investigational, highly selective inhibitor of the latent TGFβ1 isoform with selective activity in the fibrotic extracellular matrix, in preclinical development for the treatment of fibrotic diseases; and SRK-256, an investigational inhibitor of RGMc, or hemojuvelin, in preclinical development for the treatment of iron-restricted anemias. We are also seeking partners to further evaluate the potential for myostatin inhibition in combination with GLP-1 weight loss approaches following our positive Phase 2 EMBRAZE study, demonstrating proof-of-concept in the ability of apitegromab to drive statistically significant preservation of lean mass during tirzepatide-induced weight loss.

Using our innovative approach and proprietary platform, we are creating a pipeline of novel product candidates that selectively modulate growth factor activation implicated in rare, severe, and devastating neuromuscular diseases.

We have incurred significant operating losses since inception. Our net losses were $377.9 million for the year ended December 31, 2025. As of December 31, 2025, we had an accumulated deficit of $1.3 billion. We expect to continue to incur significant expenses and operating losses for the foreseeable future in performing our ongoing activities, as we:

| ● | develop our commercialization capabilities to support product sales, marketing and distribution activities;

| ● | continue development activities for apitegromab in SMA, the conduct of ONYX, the conduct of our Phase 2 OPAL study for SMA patients under two years of age and the associated drug supply;

| ● | explore and continue development activities for apitegromab in other neuromuscular disorders, including our planned Phase 2 FORGE clinical trial for apitegromab in FSHD;

| ● | continue research and development activities for our anti-myostatin program, including our Phase 1 clinical trial for SRK-439;

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| ● | continue to discover, validate and develop additional product candidates through the use of our proprietary platform;

| ● | maintain, expand and protect our intellectual property portfolio;

| ● | hire additional research, development, commercial and other business personnel; and

| ● | continue to build the global infrastructure to support our operations as a global public company.

​

To date, we have not generated any revenue from product sales. If we successfully obtain regulatory approval for apitegromab we may generate revenue in the future from product sales. In addition, if we obtain regulatory approval for apitegromab we have and expect to incur significant expenses related to developing our commercialization capabilities to support product sales, marketing and distribution activities.

​

Financial Operations Overview

Operating Expenses

Research and Development

Research and development expenses consist primarily of costs incurred for our research and development activities, including our product candidate discovery efforts, preclinical studies, manufacturing, and clinical trials under our research programs, which include:

| ● | employee-related expenses, including salaries, benefits and equity-based compensation expense for our research and development personnel;

| ● | expenses incurred under agreements with third parties that conduct research and development and preclinical activities on our behalf;

| ● | expenses incurred under agreements related to our clinical trials, including the costs for investigative sites and contract research organizations (“CROs”), that conduct our clinical trials;

| ● | manufacturing process-development, manufacturing of clinical supplies, commercial drug supply prior to FDA approval and technology-transfer expenses;

| ● | consulting and professional fees related to research and development activities;

| ● | costs of purchasing laboratory supplies and non-capital equipment used in our internal research and development activities;

| ● | costs related to compliance with clinical regulatory requirements; and

| ● | facility costs and other allocated expenses, which include expenses for rent and maintenance of facilities, insurance, depreciation and other supplies.

​

Research and development costs are expensed as incurred. Costs for certain activities are recognized based on an evaluation of the progress to completion of specific tasks. Nonrefundable advance payments for research and development goods and services to be received in the future from third parties are deferred and capitalized. The capitalized amounts are expensed as the related services are performed.

A significant portion of our research and development costs have been external costs, which we track on a program-by-program basis after a clinical product candidate has been identified. However, we do not allocate our internal research and development expenses, consisting primarily of employee-related costs, depreciation and other indirect costs, on a program-by-program basis as they are deployed across multiple projects.

Research and development activities are central to our business model. Product candidates in later stages of clinical development generally have higher development costs than those in earlier stages of clinical development, primarily due to the increased size and duration of later-stage clinical trials, as well as the associated clinical trial material requirements. We expect research and development costs for our product candidates to continue to be substantial for the

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foreseeable future as the development programs progress. However, we do not believe that it is possible at this time to accurately project total program-specific expenses through commercialization. There are numerous factors associated with the successful commercialization of any of our product candidates, including future trial design and various regulatory requirements, many of which cannot be determined with accuracy at this time based on our stage of development. Additionally, future commercial and regulatory factors beyond our control will impact our clinical development programs and plans.

The successful development of apitegromab, SRK-181, SRK-439, SRK-373, SRK-256 and any future product candidates is uncertain. Accordingly, at this time, we cannot reasonably estimate or know the nature, timing and estimated costs of the efforts that will be necessary to complete the remainder of the development of apitegromab, SRK-181, SRK-439, SRK-373, SRK-256 and any future product candidates. We are also unable to predict when, if ever, material net cash inflows will commence from the sale of our product candidates, if approved. This is due to the numerous risks and uncertainties associated with developing product candidates, including the uncertainty of:

| ● | the scope, progress, outcome and costs of our preclinical development activities, clinical trials and other research and development activities;

| ● | establishing an appropriate safety profile;

| ● | successful enrollment in and completion of clinical trials;

| ● | whether our product candidates show safety and efficacy in our clinical trials;

| ● | receipt of marketing approvals from applicable regulatory authorities, if any;

| ● | establishing commercial manufacturing capabilities or making arrangements with third-party manufacturers;

| ● | obtaining and maintaining patent and trade secret protection and regulatory exclusivity for our product candidates;

| ● | significant and changing government regulation;

| ● | commercializing the product candidates, if and when approved, whether alone or in collaboration with others; and

| ● | continued acceptable safety profile of the products following any regulatory approval.

Any of these variables, or other factors, with respect to the development of apitegromab, SRK-181, SRK-439, SRK-373, SRK-256 or any of our future product candidates could significantly change the costs and timing associated with the development of that product candidate.

General and Administrative

General and administrative expenses consist primarily of employee-related expenses, including salaries, benefits and equity-based compensation expenses for personnel in executive, finance, business development, investor relations, legal, information technology, human resources and commercial functions. Other significant general and administrative expenses include facility costs not otherwise included in research and development expenses, legal fees relating to patent and corporate matters and fees for accounting, consulting services, professional services and corporate expenses. We expect general and administrative expense to continue to be substantial as we continue to invest in building the infrastructure to support the commercialization of apitegromab.

Other Income (Expense), Net

Other income (expense), net consists primarily of interest income earned on our cash, cash equivalents and marketable securities, partially offset by interest expense incurred on our debt facility, including amortization of debt discount and debt issuance costs.

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Results of Operations

Comparison of the Years Ended December 31, 2025 and 2024

The following table summarizes our results of operations for the years ended December 31, 2025 and 2024 (in thousands, except percentages):

​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
​ | ​ | Year Ended December 31, | ​ | Change |
​ | ​ ​ ​ | 2025 | ​ ​ ​ | 2024 | ​ ​ ​ | $ | ​ ​ ​ | % |
Operating expenses: | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
Research and development | ​ | $ | 208,440 | ​ | $ | 184,550 | ​ | $ | 23,890 | ​ | 12.9 | %
General and administrative | ​ |  | 176,205 | ​ |  | 67,504 | ​ |  | 108,701 | ​ | 161.0 | %
Total operating expenses | ​ |  | 384,645 | ​ |  | 252,054 | ​ |  | 132,591 | ​ | 52.6 | %
Loss from operations | ​ |  | (384,645) | ​ |  | (252,054) | ​ |  | (132,591) | ​ | 52.6 | %
Other income (expense), net | ​ |  | 6,706 | ​ |  | 5,760 | ​ |  | 946 | ​ | 16.4 | %
Net loss | ​ | $ | (377,939) | ​ | $ | (246,294) | ​ | $ | (131,645) | ​ | 53.5 | %

​

​

Operating Expenses

Research and Development

Research and development expense was $208.4 million for the year ended December 31, 2025 compared to $184.6 million for the year ended December 31, 2024, an increase of $23.8 million, or 12.9%. The following table summarizes our research and development expense for the years ended December 31, 2025 and 2024 (in thousands, except percentages):

​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
​ | ​ | Year Ended December 31, | ​ | Change |
​ | ​ ​ ​ | 2025 | ​ ​ ​ | 2024 | ​ ​ ​ | $ | ​ ​ ​ | % |
External costs by program: | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
Apitegromab | ​ | $ | 89,802 | ​ | $ | 78,290 | ​ | $ | 11,512 | ​ | 14.7 | %
SRK-181 | ​ | ​ | 2,408 | ​ | ​ | 9,957 | ​ | ​ | (7,549) | ​ | (75.8) | %
SRK-439 | ​ | ​ | 8,969 | ​ | ​ | 11,638 | ​ | ​ | (2,669) | ​ | (22.9) | %
Other early programs and unallocated costs | ​ |  | 6,677 | ​ |  | 3,047 | ​ |  | 3,630 | ​ | 119.1 | %
Total external costs | ​ |  | 107,856 | ​ |  | 102,932 | ​ |  | 4,924 | ​ | 4.8 | %
Internal costs: | ​ |  | ​ | ​ |  | ​ | ​ |  | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
Employee compensation and benefits | ​ |  | 81,196 | ​ | ​ | 64,354 | ​ |  | 16,842 | ​ | 26.2 | %
Facility and other | ​ |  | 19,388 | ​ | ​ | 17,264 | ​ |  | 2,124 | ​ | 12.3 | %
Total internal costs | ​ |  | 100,584 | ​ |  | 81,618 | ​ |  | 18,966 | ​ | 23.2 | %
Total research and development expense | ​ | $ | 208,440 | ​ | $ | 184,550 | ​ | $ | 23,890 | ​ | 12.9 | %

​

The increase in research and development expense was primarily attributable to the following:

| ● | An increase in our external research and development costs of $4.9 million, which primarily consisted of:

| o | $11.5 million increase in costs associated with apitegromab primarily due to an increase in drug supply manufacturing and the initiation of our Phase 2 OPAL trial in SMA patients under two years of age, partially offset by decreases in clinical trial costs as our Phase 2 TOPAZ trial extension period, our Phase 3 SAPPHIRE clinical trial and our proof-of-concept Phase 2 EMBRAZE trial are completed;

| o | $7.5 million decrease in costs associated with SRK-181, as our Phase 1 DRAGON trial is completed;

| o | $2.7 million decrease in preclinical costs and manufacturing development for SRK-439; and

| o | $3.6 million increase in other early development candidates and unallocated costs as we continue to invest in our pipeline.

| ● | $19.0 million increase in internal research and development costs, which was primarily driven by an increase in employee related costs of $8.3 million, including salaries, bonus, benefits and payroll taxes related to increased

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|  | headcount, an increase of $3.9 million in severance and other costs associated with our leadership change and an increase of $4.7 million in non-cash equity-based compensation expense related to increased headcount, including charges of $1.0 million related to the modification of certain equity awards.

Total research and development expenses are expected to continue to be substantial, driven by employee compensation costs and development costs associated with our manufacture of drug supply, as well as development of our clinical stage programs as we continue development activities for apitegromab in SMA, the conduct of ONYX, the conduct of our Phase 2 OPAL trial in SMA patients under the age of two, the conduct of our planned Phase 2 FORGE trial in FSHD patients, as well as costs associated with supporting our anti-myostatin program, including SRK-439. Additionally, we will continue to invest in our pipeline. We expect costs of our SRK-181 program to decrease, as we completed the Phase 1 DRAGON clinical trial in June 2025.

General and Administrative

General and administrative expense was $176.2 million and $67.5 million for the years ended December 31, 2025 and 2024, respectively, an increase of $108.7 million or 161.0%. The total increase was primarily driven by investments in infrastructure to support launch readiness for apitegromab, including an increase of approximately $32.3 million in employee-related costs including salaries, bonus, benefits and payroll taxes related to increased headcount, an increase of $6.0 million in severance and other costs associated with our leadership change, an increase of $21.7 million in non-cash equity-based compensation expense related to increased headcount, an increase in charges in non-cash equity-based compensation expense of $12.6 million related to the modification of certain equity awards and an increase of approximately $33.6 million in professional service fees. The increase in headcount is partially associated with the hiring of our commercial and field-facing teams. We expect general and administrative expense, excluding the $18.6 million in charges associated with the leadership change, to continue to be substantial as we continue to invest in building the infrastructure to support the commercialization of apitegromab.

Other Income (Expense), Net

The change in other income (expense), net was primarily attributable to an increase in interest income earned due to higher average balances in our cash, cash equivalents and marketable securities.

Liquidity and Capital Resources

Sources of Liquidity

Since our inception, we have not generated any product revenue and have incurred significant operating losses and negative cash flows from our operations. We have funded our operations to date primarily with proceeds from the sale of our convertible preferred stock and units in private placements before our IPO, and issuance of our common stock through our IPO in 2018, to Gilead in an exempt private placement, through multiple secondary public offerings and through “at-the-market offerings” (“ATM”) sales, as well as payments from our research collaborations and the Loan and Security Agreement entered into in October 2020 and subsequently amended (see Note 14).

The following table provides information regarding our total cash, cash equivalents and marketable securities at December 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024 (in thousands):

​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
​ | ​ ​ ​ | December 31, | ​ ​ ​ | December 31,
​ | ​ | 2025 | ​ | 2024
Cash and cash equivalents | ​ | $ | 323,527 | ​ | $ | 177,878
Marketable securities | ​ |  | 44,036 | ​ |  | 259,400
Total cash, cash equivalents and marketable securities | ​ | $ | 367,563 | ​ | $ | 437,278

​

During the year ended December 31, 2025, our cash, cash equivalents and marketable securities balance decreased by $69.7 million. The change was primarily due to cash used to operate our business, including payments related to, among other things, research and development and general and administrative expenses as we continued to invest in our product

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candidates and supported our internal research and development efforts and made interest payments on our debt, partially offset by proceeds from our debt facility, sales under our ATM program and the exercises of stock options and common warrants.

Our current ATM program with Jefferies, established in November 2022, allows for the sale of shares of our common stock from time to time in “at-the-market offerings” through Jefferies as the Company’s sales agent. As of December 31, 2025, we sold 3,386,290 shares of our common stock, generating net proceeds of $96.9 million, under the ATM program. Of this amount, we sold 2,767,000 shares of our common stock under the ATM program during the year ended December 31, 2025, generating net proceeds of $91.7 million.

​

In February 2025, we entered into the Existing Loan Agreement with Oxford for up to $200 million, of which $25.0 million from Tranche 1 was received in October 2020, $25.0 million from Tranche 2 was received in December 2021 and $50.0 million from Tranche 3 was received in September 2025, bringing the total outstanding balance under the Term Loans to $100.0 million (see Note 14).

​

In February 2026, we entered into the 2026 Loan Agreement with Blue Owl for up to $350.0 million, of which $100.0 million of the initial term loan (the “Initial Term Loan”) was received in February 2026. We used the proceeds of the Initial Term Loan upon the closing under the 2026 Loan Agreement to repay all outstanding obligations, totaling $103.7 million, under the Existing Loan Agreement with Oxford and upon such repayment, terminated the Existing Loan Agreement. The amount repaid by the Company included $100.0 million of outstanding indebtedness plus accrued and unpaid interest as of February 27, 2026 (the “Closing Date”) and fees. As a result of the termination, all credit commitments under the Existing Loan Agreement were terminated and all security interests and guarantees executed in connection with the Existing Loan Agreement were released.

​

An initial delayed draw term loan commitment in an aggregate principal amount not to exceed $100.0 million will be available after the Closing Date until the earliest of the full usage thereof, termination thereof and March 31, 2026 (the “DDTL-1 Commitments”, and any term loans made with respect thereto, the “DDTL-1 Term Loans”), which we may borrow at our sole option upon satisfying certain customary conditions, including satisfaction of the minimum cash covenant.

​

During the year ended December 31, 2025, none of the Company’s pre-funded warrants were exercised. As of December 31, 2025, the Company had 17,362,147 pre-funded warrants outstanding.

During the year ended December 31, 2025, 8,678,664 of the Company’s common warrants were exercised, generating net proceeds of $63.8 million. In October 2025, the Company issued 250,000 common warrants in exchange for non-employee services. As of December 31, 2025, the Company had 250,000 common warrants outstanding.

Cash Flows

The following table provides information regarding our cash flows for the years ended December 31, 2025 and 2024 (in thousands):

​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
​ | ​ | Year Ended December 31,
​ | ​ ​ ​ | 2025 | ​ ​ ​ | 2024
Net cash used in operating activities | ​ | $ | (300,035) | ​ | $ | (200,949)
Net cash provided by (used in) investing activities | ​ |  | 218,687 | ​ |  | (76,056)
Net cash provided by financing activities | ​ |  | 228,399 | ​ |  | 353,028
Net increase in cash, cash equivalents and restricted cash | ​ | $ | 147,051 | ​ | $ | 76,023

​

Net Cash Used in Operating Activities

Net cash used in operating activities was $300.0 million for the year ended December 31, 2025, and consisted of our net loss of $377.9 million and changes in our assets and liabilities of $1.1 million, partially offset by non-cash adjustments of $79.0 million. The non-cash adjustments are primarily from equity-based compensation.

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Net cash used in operating activities was $200.9 million for the year ended December 31, 2024, and consisted of our net loss of $246.3 million, changes in our assets and liabilities of $6.6 million, partially offset by non-cash adjustments of $38.8 million. The non-cash adjustments are primarily from equity-based compensation.

​

Net Cash (Used in) Provided by Investing Activities

Net cash provided by investing activities was $218.7 million for the year ended December 31, 2025, compared to net cash provided by investing activities of $76.1 million for the year ended December 31, 2024. Net cash provided by investing activities for both periods was primarily associated with transactions involving our marketable securities.

Net Cash Provided by Financing Activities

Net cash provided by financing activities was $228.4 million for the year ended December 31, 2025, compared to $353.0 million for the year ended December 31, 2024. Net cash provided by financing activities for the year ended December 31, 2025 was primarily attributable to $91.7 million in net proceeds from the sale of common shares under our ATM program, $50.0 million in proceeds from our debt facility, $63.8 million from the exercise of common warrants and $23.8 million from the exercise of stock options, partially offset by the net impact of our debt refinancing. Net cash provided by financing activities for the year ended December 31, 2024 was primarily attributable to net proceeds from an equity offering completed in October 2024, in addition to stock option and warrant exercises.

Funding Requirements

We expect our expenses to be substantial as we continue the research and development of apitegromab in SMA. In addition, we are seeking marketing approval for apitegromab, and we expect to incur significant commercialization expenses related to product sales, marketing, global manufacturing and distribution. We expect to continue to incur apitegromab development costs as we invest in trials to support other SMA patient populations, such as our Phase 2 OPAL clinical trial, and multiple other diseases beyond SMA where selective inhibition of myostatin activation may offer therapeutic benefit, such as our planned Phase 2 FORGE trial. We expect to incur costs to support our anti-myostatin program, including the close out activities for our Phase 2 EMBRAZE proof-of-concept trial of apitegromab and our Phase 1 trial for SRK-439. Additionally, we will support the development of our pipeline and any other preclinical programs. Furthermore, we expect to continue to incur costs associated with operating as a public company.

​

Based on our current operating model, we expect that our existing cash, cash equivalents, marketable securities and cash available (see Note 18) to us will enable us to fund our operating expenses and capital expenditure requirements into 2027. However, we will require additional capital in order to complete clinical development and commercialization for each of our current programs. We have based this estimate on assumptions that may prove to be wrong, and we may use our available capital resources sooner than we currently expect. Our future capital requirements will depend on many factors, including:

​

| ● | the costs and timing of developing our product candidates and future product candidates, including costs associated with apitegromab in ONYX, our long-term extension study in SMA for patients from both the TOPAZ and SAPPHIRE studies, our Phase 2 OPAL trial in SMA patients under the age of two, our planned Phase 2 FORGE trial in FSHD patients, our Phase 1 trial of SRK-439 in healthy volunteers and the costs and timing of conducting future preclinical studies and clinical trials for SRK-373, SRK-256 or any other product candidates;

| ● | the costs of future manufacturing of apitegromab, SRK-181, SRK-439, SRK-373, SRK-256 and any other future product candidates;

| ● | the scope, progress, results and costs of discovery, preclinical development, laboratory testing and clinical trials for other potential product candidates we may develop, if any;

| ● | the costs of identifying and developing, or in-licensing or acquiring, additional product candidates and technologies;

| ● | the costs, timing and outcome of regulatory review of our product candidates;

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| ● | our ability to establish and maintain collaborations on favorable terms, if at all;

| ● | the achievement of milestones or occurrence of other developments that trigger payments under any collaboration agreements, license agreements, or other agreements we might have at such time;

| ● | the costs of seeking marketing approvals for apitegromab;

| ● | the costs and timing of future commercialization activities, including product sales, marketing, manufacturing and distribution for apitegromab, if approved;

| ● | the amount of revenue, if any, received from commercial sales of apitegromab, if approved;

| ● | the costs of preparing, filing and prosecuting patent applications, obtaining, maintaining and enforcing our intellectual property rights and defending intellectual property-related claims;

| ● | our headcount growth and associated costs as we expand our global business operations and research and development activities;

| ● | the costs of supporting our global infrastructure and facilities, including equipment and physical infrastructure to support our research and development;

| ● | the costs of operating as a global public company; and

| ● | the impact of adverse global economic conditions on our business, including increased costs associated with global tariff policies, which may exacerbate the magnitude of the factors discussed above.

​

Identifying potential product candidates and conducting preclinical studies and clinical trials is a time-consuming, expensive and uncertain process that takes years to complete, and we may never generate the necessary data or results required to obtain marketing approval and achieve product sales. In addition, our product candidates, if approved, may not achieve commercial success. Accordingly, we will need to continue to rely on additional financing to achieve our business objectives. Adequate additional financing may not be available to us on acceptable terms, or at all.

Until such time, if ever, as we can generate substantial product revenues, we expect to finance our cash needs through a combination of equity offerings, debt financings, collaborations, strategic alliances and licensing arrangements. To the extent that we raise additional capital through the sale of equity or convertible debt securities, common stockholder ownership interests may be diluted, and the terms of these securities may include liquidation or other preferences that could adversely affect the rights of a common stockholder. Additional debt financing, if available, may involve agreements that include restrictive covenants that limit our ability to take specific actions, such as incurring additional debt, making capital expenditures or declaring dividends, that could adversely impact our ability to conduct our business.

If we raise funds through collaborations, strategic alliances or licensing arrangements with third parties, we may have to relinquish valuable rights to our technologies, future revenue streams, research programs or product candidates or to grant licenses on terms that may not be favorable to us. Market volatility or other factors could also adversely impact our ability to access capital as and when needed. If we are unable to raise additional funds through equity or debt financings when needed, we may be required to delay, limit, reduce or terminate our product development or future commercialization efforts or grant rights to develop and market product candidates that we would otherwise prefer to develop and market ourselves.

Critical Accounting Estimates

This management’s discussion and analysis is based on our consolidated financial statements, which have been prepared in accordance with U.S. generally accepted accounting principles. The preparation of these consolidated financial statements requires us to make judgments and estimates that affect the reported amounts of assets, liabilities, revenues and expenses and the disclosure of contingent assets and liabilities in our consolidated financial statements. We base our estimates on historical experience, known trends and events and various other factors that we believe to be reasonable under the circumstances, the results of which form the basis for making judgements about the carrying values of assets and liabilities that are not readily apparent from other sources. Actual results may differ from these estimates under different assumptions or conditions. On an ongoing basis, we evaluate our judgments and estimates in light of changes in circumstances, facts and experience. The effects of material revisions in estimates, if any, will be reflected in the

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consolidated financial statements prospectively from the date of change in estimates. Our actual results may differ from these estimates under different assumptions or conditions.

While our significant accounting policies are described in more detail in Note 2 to our consolidated financial statements appearing elsewhere in this report, we believe that the following accounting estimates are those most critical to the judgments used in the preparation of our consolidated financial statements. They involve a significant level of estimation uncertainty and have had or are reasonably likely to have a material impact on our finance condition or result of operations.

Research and Development Expenses and related Accruals/Prepaids

As part of the process of preparing our consolidated financial statements, we are required to estimate our accrued expenses as of each balance sheet date. This process involves reviewing open contracts and purchase orders, communicating with our personnel and/or reviewing other third-party sources to identify the progress of services that has been performed on our behalf, as well as invoices received and contracted costs. This contributes to estimating the level of service performed and the associated cost incurred for the service when we have not yet been invoiced or otherwise notified of the actual cost.

The majority of our service providers invoice us monthly in arrears for services performed or when contractual milestones are met. We make estimates of our accrued expenses as of each balance sheet date based on facts and circumstances known to us at that time. We periodically confirm the accuracy of our estimates with the service providers and make adjustments if necessary. The significant estimates in our accrued research and development expenses include the costs incurred for services performed by our vendors in connection with research and development activities for which we have not yet been invoiced. In certain instances, we prepay for services to be provided in the future. These amounts are expensed as the services are performed.

We base our expenses related to research and development activities on our estimates of the services received and efforts expended pursuant to quotes and contracts with vendors that conduct research and development on our behalf. The financial terms of these agreements are subject to negotiation, vary from contract to contract and may result in uneven payment flows. There may be instances in which payments made to our vendors will exceed the level of services provided and result in a prepayment of the research and development expense. In accruing service fees, we estimate the time period over which services will be performed and the level of effort to be expended in each period. If the actual timing of the performance of services or the level of effort varies from our estimate, we adjust the accrual or prepaid balance accordingly. Nonrefundable advance payments for goods and services that will be used in future research and development activities are expensed when the activity has been performed or when the goods have been received rather than when the payment is made.

Although we do not expect our estimates to be materially different from amounts incurred, if our estimates of the status and timing of services performed differ from the actual status and timing of services performed, it could result in us reporting amounts that are too high or too low in any particular period. To date, there have been no material differences between our estimates of such expenses and the amounts incurred.

The accrued research and development expenses at the end of each year are generally paid during the following year and therefore the same estimates and assumptions do not continue to exist each year, although, as described above, the method and procedures to develop those estimates and assumptions are generally consistent.

Recent Accounting Pronouncements

We have reviewed all recently issued standards and have determined that, other than Recently Issued Accounting Pronouncements as disclosed in Note 2 to our audited consolidated financial statements appearing elsewhere in this Annual Report on Form 10-K, such standards will not have a material impact on our financial statements or do not otherwise apply to our operations.

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Item 7A. Quantitative and Qualitative Disclosures About Market Risk.

We are no longer a smaller reporting company as defined by Rule 12b-2 of the Exchange Act. In accordance with SEC rules for this transition, we are not required to provide the information required under this item.

Item 8. Financial Statements and Supplementary Data

Our financial statements, together with the report of our independent registered public accounting firm, appear in this Annual Report beginning on page F-1.

Item 9. Changes in and Disagreements with Accountants on Accounting and Financial Disclosure

None.

Item 9A. Controls and Procedures.

Management’s Evaluation of our Disclosure Controls and Procedures

We maintain “disclosure controls and procedures,” as defined in Rules 13a-15(e) and 15d-15(e) under the Exchange Act, that are designed to ensure that information required to be disclosed in the reports that we file or submit under the Exchange Act is (1) recorded, processed, summarized and reported within the time periods specified in the Securities and Exchange Commission’s rules and forms and (2) accumulated and communicated to our management, including our principal executive officer and principal financial and accounting officer, as appropriate to allow timely decisions regarding required disclosure. Our management recognizes that any controls and procedures, no matter how well designed and operated, can provide only reasonable assurance of achieving their objectives and our management necessarily applies its judgment in evaluating the cost-benefit relationship of possible controls and procedures. Our disclosure controls and procedures are designed to provide reasonable assurance of achieving their control objectives.

Our management, with the participation of our chief executive officer (principal executive officer) and chief financial officer (principal financial and accounting officer), has evaluated the effectiveness of our disclosure controls and procedures as of December 31, 2025, the end of the period covered by this Annual Report on Form 10-K. Based upon such evaluation, our chief executive officer and chief financial officer have concluded that our disclosure controls and procedures were effective at the reasonable assurance level as of such date. We continue to review and document our disclosure controls and procedures, including our internal controls and procedures for financial reporting, and may from time to time make changes aimed at enhancing their effectiveness and to ensure that our systems evolve with our business.

Management’s Annual Report on Internal Control Over Financial Reporting

Our management is responsible for establishing and maintaining adequate internal control over financial reporting as such term is defined in Exchange Act Rule 13a–15(f) and 15d-15(d) under the Exchange Act. Our internal control system was designed to provide reasonable assurance to our management and our Board regarding the preparation and fair presentation of published financial statements. All internal control systems, no matter how well designed have inherent limitations. Therefore, even those systems determined to be effective can provide only reasonable assurance with respect to financial statement preparation and presentation. Our management assessed the effectiveness of our internal control over financial reporting as of December 31, 2025. In making this assessment, our management used the criteria set forth in Internal Control-Integrated Framework issued by the Committee of Sponsoring Organizations of the Treadway Commission in 2013 (“COSO criteria”). Based on this assessment, management concluded that our internal control over financial reporting was effective as of December 31, 2025. This Annual Report on Form 10-K does not include an attestation report pursuant to the requirements of Section 404(b) of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of as we qualify as a “smaller reporting company” and as such, are exempt from such auditor attestation requirement.

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Changes in Internal Controls Over Financial Reporting

No change in our internal controls over financial reporting (as defined in Rules 13a-15(f) and 15d-15(f) under the Exchange Act) occurred during the year ended December 31, 2025 that has materially affected, or is reasonably likely to materially affect, our internal control over financial reporting.

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Item 9B. Other Information.

(a)

On the Closing Date, the Company (a “Borrower”), Scholar Rock, Inc., Scholar Rock U.S. Operations, Inc., and Scholar Rock Foreign Holdings, Inc., each a wholly-owned subsidiary of the Company (each a “Guarantor” and collectively, the “Guarantors”), entered into a Financing Agreement with the lenders party thereto (each a “Lender” and collectively, the “Lenders”), and LSI Financing LLC, as the administrative agent for the Lenders (the “Administrative Agent”).

Amount. The 2026 Loan Agreement provides for a term loan in an aggregate principal amount of up to $350.0 million subject to funding as follows: (a) on the Closing Date, the Initial Term Loan; (b) the DDTL-1 Commitments, which may be borrowed by the Company at its sole option upon satisfying certain customary conditions, including satisfaction of the minimum cash covenant (if applicable); and (c) an additional delayed draw term loan commitment in an aggregate principal amount not to exceed $150.0 million that will be available from the date of FDA approval for apitegromab in spinal muscular atrophy until the date that is the earliest of the full usage thereof, termination thereof and September 30, 2027 (the “DDTL-2 Commitments” and any term loans made with respect thereto, the “DDTL-2 Term Loans”), which may be borrowed by the Company at its sole option upon satisfying certain customary conditions, including satisfaction of the minimum cash covenant (if applicable). In addition, the Financing Agreement includes an uncommitted incremental term loan facility that requires the consent of the applicable Lenders in an aggregate principal amount not to exceed $200.0 million (the term loans thereunder, if any, the “Incremental Term Loans”, together with the Initial Term Loan, the DDTL-1 Term Loans and the DDTL-2 Term Loans, collectively the “Term Loans”). As of the Closing Date, the Company has received $100.0 million as the Initial Term Loan. The Company intends to use the proceeds of the Term Loan for (x) repayment of all outstanding indebtedness under the Company’s existing credit agreement with Oxford Finance LLC and (y) working capital purposes and general corporate purposes and transactions not prohibited under the Financing Agreement.

Interest Rate, Fees. The outstanding principal of the Term Loan interest at a rate per annum on the basis of a 360 day year equal to (a) in the case of Term Loans bearing interest based on the base rate defined in the Financing Agreement (the “Base Rate Loans”), the sum of (i) the base rate (and which base rate will not be less than 2.00%) plus (ii) 4.00% and (B) in the case of Term Loans bearing interest based on the three-month forward-looking term secured overnight financing rate as published by CME Group Benchmark Administration Limited (the “Term SOFR” and such loans “SOFR Loans”), the sum of (i) three-month Term SOFR (subject to 1.00% per annum floor), plus (ii) 5.00%. Accrued interest is payable quarterly, on any date of prepayment of the Term Loans and at maturity.

Guaranty. The obligations of the Company under the Financing Agreement are and will be guaranteed by the Guarantors and certain other direct and indirect subsidiaries of the Company from time to time, subject to certain exceptions.

Maturity. The maturity date of the Term Loan is the earlier of February 26, 2032 and the date the Term Loans shall otherwise become due and payable in full under the Financing Agreement.

Prepayment. The Company may, at its option, prepay at any time the Term Loans on any Business Day in whole or in part. In certain instances and during certain time periods, these prepayments, together with certain mandatory prepayments and payments of the Term Loans resulting from the exercise of remedies under the Financing Agreement, will be subject to customary prepayment fees.

Security. The Company, the Guarantors and the Administrative Agent entered into the Security Agreement in connection with the Financing Agreement. The Company’s obligations are secured by a security interest, senior (subject to permitted liens) to any current and future debts and to any security interest (other than an asset-based credit facility with respect to customary asset-based priority collateral), in all of the Company’s right, title, and interest in, to and under all of the Company’s property and other assets, other than customary exclusions.

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Covenants; Representations and Warranties; Other Provisions. The Financing Agreement contains customary representations, warranties and covenants. The Company and the Guarantors are also required to maintain a minimum unrestricted cash balance of at least 60% of the aggregate outstanding principal amount of the Term Loans, unless certain milestones are met and maintained.

Default Provisions. The Financing Agreement provides for events of default customary for term loans of this type, including but not limited to non-payment, breaches or defaults in the performance of covenants, insolvency, bankruptcy, material contract terminations and withdrawal events, subject in certain cases to grace periods, cure mechanics, exceptions and thresholds. After the occurrence and during the continuance of an event of default, the Administrative Agent has the option to accelerate payment of all or any portion of the obligations and terminate the Lenders’ commitments under the Financing Agreement, and/or exercise all available rights and remedies on behalf of themselves and the Lenders.

The foregoing description of the Financing Agreement is not purported to be complete and is qualified in its entirety by reference to the Financing Agreement, which is filed as Exhibit 10.34 to this Annual Report on Form 10-K.

On February 27, 2026, the Company used the proceeds of the Initial Term Loan funded by the Lenders upon the closing under the Financing Agreement to repay all outstanding obligations, totaling $103.7 million, under the Existing Loan Agreement and upon such repayment, terminated the Existing Loan Agreement. The amount repaid by the Company included $100.0 million of outstanding indebtedness plus accrued and unpaid interest as of the Closing Date and fees. As a result of the termination, all credit commitments under the Existing Loan Agreement were terminated and all security interests and guarantees executed in connection with the Existing Loan Agreement were released.

​

(b)

Trading Plans

During the three months ended December 31, 2025, n o n e of our directors or officers (as defined in Rule 16a-1 (f)) adopted, modified, or terminated a ”Rule 10b5-1 trading arrangement” or a ”non-Rule 10b5-1 trading arrangement,” as each term is defined in Item 408(c) of Regulation S-K of the Exchange Act.

Item 9C. Foreign Jurisdictions that Prevent Inspections

Not applicable.

​

​

PART III

Item 10. Directors, Executive Officers, and Corporate Governance

The information required under this item is incorporated herein by reference to the Company’s definitive proxy statement pursuant to Regulation 14A, which proxy statement will be filed with the SEC not later than 120 days after the close of the Company’s fiscal year ended December 31, 2025.

Item 11. Executive Compensation

The information required under this item (excluding the information under the heading “Pay Versus Performance”) is incorporated herein by reference to the Company’s definitive proxy statement pursuant to Regulation 14A, which will be filed with the SEC not later than 120 days after the close of the Company’s fiscal year ended December 31, 2025.

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Item 12. Security Ownership of Certain Beneficial Owners and Management and Related Stockholder Matters

The information required under this item is incorporated herein by reference to the Company’s definitive proxy statement pursuant to Regulation 14A, which will be filed with the SEC not later than 120 days after the close of the Company’s fiscal year ended December 31, 2025.

Item 13. Certain Relationships and Related Transactions and Director Independence

The information required under this item is incorporated herein by reference to the Company’s definitive proxy statement pursuant to Regulation 14A, which will be filed with the SEC not later than 120 days after the close of the Company’s fiscal year ended December 31, 2025.

Item 14. Principal Accountant Fees and Services

The information required under this item is incorporated herein by reference to the Company’s definitive proxy statement pursuant to Regulation 14A, which will be filed with the SEC not later than 120 days after the close of the Company’s fiscal year ended December 31, 2025.

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PART IV

Item 15. Exhibits, Financial Statements and Schedules

(a)(1) Financial Statements.

Our consolidated financial statements and notes thereto, together with the Reports of Independent Registered Public Accounting Firm are included in Item 8 of this Annual Report commencing on page F-1.

(a)(2) Financial Statement Schedules.

All financial schedules have been omitted because the required information is either presented in the consolidated financial statements or the notes thereto or is not applicable or required.

(a)(3) Exhibits.

The following exhibits are included in this Annual Report for the fiscal year ended December 31, 2025 (and are numbered in accordance with Item 601 of Regulation S-K):

​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
Number | ​ ​ ​ | Description | ​ ​ ​ | Form | ​ ​ ​ | File No. | ​ ​ ​ | Exhibit No. | ​ ​ ​ | Filing Date
​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
3.1 | ​ | Amended and Restated Certificate of Incorporation of the Registrant | ​ | S-1/A | ​ | 333-224493 | ​ | 3.2 | ​ | May 8, 2018
3.2 | ​ | Amendment to Amended and Restated Certificate of Incorporation of the Registrant | ​ | S-1/A | ​ | 333-224493 | ​ | 3.1.1 | ​ | May 14, 2018
3.3 | ​ | Certificate of Amendment to Amended and Restated Certificate of Incorporation of the Registrant | ​ | 8-K | ​ | 001-38501 | ​ | 3.1 | ​ | June 28, 2024
3.4 | ​ | Amended and Restated By-laws of the Registrant | ​ | S-1/A | ​ | 333-224493 | ​ | 3.4 | ​ | May 8, 2018
4.1 | ​ | Investors’ Rights Agreement among the Registrant and certain of its stockholders, dated December 22, 2017 | ​ | S-1 | ​ | 333-224493 | ​ | 4.1 | ​ | April 27, 2018
4.2 | ​ | Specimen Stock Certificate evidencing shares of common stock | ​ | S-1/A | ​ | 333-224493 | ​ | 4.2 | ​ | May 14, 2018
4.3 | ​ | Amended and Restated Warrant to Purchase Stock, by and between Silicon Valley Bank and the Registrant, dated December 22, 2017 | ​ | S-1 | ​ | 333-224493 | ​ | 4.3 | ​ | April 27, 2018
4.4 | ​ | Description of Capital Stock | ​ | 10-K | ​ | 001-38501 | ​ | 4.4 | ​ | February 27, 2025
4.5 | ​ | Form of Pre-Funded Warrant | ​ | 8-K | ​ | 001-38501 | ​ | 4.1 | ​ | June 21, 2022
4.6 | ​ | Form of Pre-Funded Warrant | ​ | 8-K | ​ | 001-38501 | ​ | 4.1 | ​ | October 10, 2024
4.7* | ​ | Form of Common Stock Purchase Warrant, dated October 24, 2025 | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
4.8* | ​ | Form of Amendment No. 1 to Common Stock Purchase Warrant, dated January 31, 2025 | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
10.1+ | ​ | 2017 Stock Option and Incentive Plan and forms of award agreements thereunder | ​ | S-1 | ​ | 333-224493 | ​ | 10.1 | ​ | April 27, 2018
10.2+ | ​ | 2018 Stock Option and Incentive Plan and forms of award agreements thereunder | ​ | S-1/A | ​ | 333-224493 | ​ | 10.2 | ​ | May 14, 2018
10.3+ | ​ | Senior Executive Cash Incentive Bonus Plan | ​ | S-1/A | ​ | 333-224493 | ​ | 10.3 | ​ | May 8, 2018
10.4+ | ​ | 2018 Employee Stock Purchase Plan | ​ | S-1/A | ​ | 333-224493 | ​ | 10.4 | ​ | May 14, 2018
10.5+ | ​ | Scholar Rock Holding Corporation 2022 Inducement Equity Plan | ​ | 8.K | ​ | 001-38501 | ​ | 10.2 | ​ | June 21, 2022

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10.6+ | ​ | Amendment No. 1 to Scholar Rock Holding Corporation 2022 Inducement Equity Plan, dated September 4, 2022 | ​ | S-8 | ​ | 333-268327 | ​ | 99.2 | ​ | November 14, 2022
10.7+ | ​ | Amendment No. 2 to Scholar Rock Holding Corporation 2022 Inducement Equity Plan, dated February 3, 2023 | ​ | 10-K | ​ | 001-38501 ​ | ​ | 10.7 | ​ | March 7, 2023
10.8+ | ​ | Amendment No. 3 to Scholar Rock Holding Corporation 2022 Inducement Equity Plan, dated January 25, 2024 | ​ | 10-K | ​ | 001-38501 | ​ | 10.8 | ​ | March 19, 2024
10.9+ | ​ | Amendment No. 4 to Scholar Rock Holding Corporation 2022 Inducement Equity Plan, dated November 9, 2024 | ​ | S-8 | ​ | 333-283120 | ​ | 99.7 | ​ | November 12, 2024
10.10+ | ​ | Amendment No. 5 to Scholar Rock Holding Corporation 2022 Inducement Equity Plan, dated February 6, 2025 | ​ | S-8 | ​ | 333-285307 | ​ | 99.8 | ​ | February 27, 2025
10.11+ | ​ | Form of Performance Based Restricted Stock Unit Agreement under the 2018 Stock Option and Incentive Plan. | ​ | 10-Q | ​ | 001-38501 | ​ | 10.7 | ​ | August 6, 2025
10.12+ | ​ | Form of Performance Based Restricted Stock Unit Agreement under the Scholar Rock Holding Corporation 2022 Inducement Equity Plan, as amended. | ​ | 10-Q | ​ | 001-38501 | ​ | 10.8 | ​ | August 6, 2025
10.13+ | ​ | Form of Indemnification Agreement | ​ | S-1/A | ​ | 333-224493 | ​ | 10.5 | ​ | May 14, 2018
10.14† | ​ | Exclusive License Agreement by and between the Registrant, and Children’s Medical Center, dated as December 16, 2013 | ​ | S-1 | ​ | 333-224493 | ​ | 10.6 | ​ | April 27, 2018
10.15 | ​ | Lease Agreement by and between BMR-Rogers Street LLC and Scholar Rock, Inc., dated November 5, 2019. Schedules have been omitted pursuant to Item 601(b)(2) of Regulation S-K. A copy of any omitted schedules will be furnished supplementally to the Securities and Exchange Commission upon request. | ​ | 10-Q | ​ | 001-38501 | ​ | 10.2 | ​ | November 12, 2019
10.16 | ​ | Loan and Security Agreement, dated October 16, 2020, by and among the Registrant, Scholar Rock, Inc., Oxford Finance LLC and Silicon Valley Bank. | ​ | 10-K | ​ | 001-38501 | ​ | 10.26 | ​ | March 9, 2021
10.17 | ​ | First Amendment to Loan and Security Agreement, dated November 16, 2021, by and among the Registrant, Scholar Rock, Inc., Oxford Finance LLC and Silicon Valley Bank. | ​ | 10-K | ​ | 001-38501 | ​ | 10.27 | ​ | March 7, 2022
10.18 | ​ | Second Amendment to Loan and Security Agreement, dated November 10, 2022, by and among the Registrant, Scholar Rock, Inc., Oxford Finance LLC and Silicon Valley Bank. | ​ | 10-K | ​ | 001-38501 | ​ | 10.26 | ​ | March 7, 2023
10.19 | ​ | Third Amendment to Loan and Security Agreement, dated April 18, 2023, by and among the Registrant, Scholar Rock, Inc., Oxford Finance LLC and Silicon Valley Bank. | ​ | 10-Q | ​ | 001-38501 | ​ | 10.1 | ​ | August 9, 2023

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10.20 | ​ | Fourth Amendment to Loan and Security Agreement, dated May 27, 2024, by and among the Registrant, Scholar Rock, Inc., Oxford Finance LLC and Silicon Valley Bank. | ​ | 10-Q | ​ | 001-38501 | ​ | 10.2 | ​ | August 8, 2024
10.21+ | ​ | Employment Agreement, by and between Scholar Rock, Inc. and Jing Marantz, dated November 7, 2022. | ​ | 8-K | ​ | 001-38501 | ​ | 10.1 | ​ | November 9, 2022
10.22+ | ​ | Amended and Restated Employment Agreement, by and between Scholar Rock, Inc. and Junlin Ho dated March 1, 2023. | ​ | 10-K | ​ | 001-38501 | ​ | 10.31 | ​ | March 7, 2023
10.23+ | ​ | Employment Agreement, by and between Scholar Rock, Inc. and Tracey Sacco, dated February 1, 2023. | ​ | 10-K | ​ | 001-38501 | ​ | 10.32 | ​ | March 19, 2024
10.24+ | ​ | Amended and Restated Employment Agreement, dated October 2, 2024 by and between Scholar Rock, Inc. and Erin Moore. | ​ | 10-Q | ​ | 001-38501 | ​ | 10.4 | ​ | May 14, 2024
10.25††+ | ​ | Employment Agreement, dated April 27, 2025 by and between Scholar Rock, Inc. and David Hallal. | ​ | 10-Q | ​ | 001-38501 | ​ | 10.2 | ​ | August 6, 2025
10.26††+ | ​ | Employment Agreement, dated April 27, 2025 by and between Scholar Rock, Inc. and Akshay Vaishnaw. | ​ | 10-Q | ​ | 001-38501 | ​ | 10.3 | ​ | August 6, 2025
10.27††+ | ​ | Employment Agreement, dated April 27, 2025 by and between Scholar Rock, Inc. and R. Keith Woods. | ​ | 10-Q | ​ | 001-38501 | ​ | 10.4 | ​ | August 6, 2025
10.28††+ | ​ | Employment Agreement, dated April 27, 2025 by and between Scholar Rock, Inc. and Vikas Sinha. | ​ | 10-Q | ​ | 001-38501 | ​ | 10.5 | ​ | August 6, 2025
10.29††+ | ​ | Transitional Services Agreement, dated May 27, 2025 by and between Scholar Rock, Inc. and Jay T. Backstrom. | ​ | 10-Q | ​ | 001-38501 | ​ | 10.6 | ​ | August 6, 2025
10.30†† | ​ | Amended and Restated Loan and Security Agreement, dated February 10, 2025, by and among the Registrant, Scholar Rock, Inc., Oxford Finance LLC. | ​ | 10-K | ​ | 001-38501 | ​ | 10.25 | ​ | February 27, 2025
10.31†† | ​ | Third Amended and Restated Loan and Security Agreement, dated September 19, 2025, by and between the Registrant and Oxford Finance LLC | ​ | 10-Q | ​ | 001-38501 | ​ | 10.1 | ​ | November 14, 2025
10.32 | ​ | Separation Agreement and Release by and between Scholar Rock, Inc. and Edward H. Myles, dated January 28, 2025. | ​ | 8-K | ​ | 001-38501 | ​ | 10.1 | ​ | January 29, 2025
10.33 | ​ | Scholar Rock Holding Corporation Amended and Restated Non-employee Director Compensation Policy | ​ | 10-Q | ​ | 001-38501 | ​ | 10.9 | ​ | August 6, 2025
10.34* †† | ​ | Financing Agreement by and among the Registrant, Scholar Rock, Inc., Scholar Rock U.S. Operations, Inc., Scholar Rock Foreign Holdings, Inc., LSI Financing LLC and various lenders from time to time party hereto, dated February 27, 2026. | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​

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16.1 | ​ | Letter from Ernst & Young LLP to the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, dated May 12, 2025 | ​ | 8-K | ​ | 001-38501 | ​ | 16.1 | ​ | May 12, 2025
19 | ​ | Scholar Rock Holding Corporation Statement of Company Policy on Insider Trading and Disclosure | ​ | 10-K | ​ | 001-38501 | ​ | 19 | ​ | February 27, 2025
21.1* | ​ | Subsidiaries of the Registrant | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
23.1* | ​ | Consent of Independent Registered Public Accounting Firm (Ernst & Young LLP). | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
23.2* | ​ | Consent of Independent Registered Public Accounting Firm (Deloitte & Touche LLP). | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
24.1* | ​ | Power of Attorney (included on the signature page to this report). | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
31.1* | ​ | Certification of Principal Executive Officer Pursuant to Rules 13a-14(a) and 15d-14(a) under the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, as Adopted Pursuant to Section 302 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002. | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
31.2* | ​ | Certification of Principal Financial Officer Pursuant to Rules 13a-14(a) and 15d-14(a) under the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, as Adopted Pursuant to Section 302 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002. | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
32.1** | ​ | Certification of Principal Executive Officer and Principal Financial Officer Pursuant to 18 U.S.C. Section 1350, as Adopted Pursuant to Section 906 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002. | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
97# | ​ | Compensation Recovery Policy | ​ | 10-K | ​ | 001-38501 | ​ | 97 | ​ | March 19, 2024
101.INS | ​ | Inline XBRL Instance Document | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
101.SCH | ​ | Inline XBRL Taxonomy Extension Schema Document | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
101.CAL | ​ | Inline XBRL Taxonomy Extension Calculation Linkbase Document | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
101.DEF | ​ | Inline XBRL Taxonomy Extension Definition Linkbase Document | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
101.LAB | ​ | Inline XBRL Taxonomy Extension Label Linkbase Document | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
101.PRE | ​ | Inline XBRL Taxonomy Extension Presentation Linkbase Document | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
104* | ​ | Cover Page Interactive Data File (formatted as inline XBRL with applicable taxonomy extension information contained in Exhibits 101.) | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​

* Filed herewith.

** Furnished herewith and not deemed to be “filed” for purposes of Section 18 of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, as amended, the Exchange Act, and shall not be deemed to be incorporated by reference into any filing under the Securities Act of 1933, as amended, or the Exchange Act (whether made before or after the date of the Form 10-K), irrespective of any general incorporation language contained in such filing.

+ Indicates a management contract or compensatory plan.

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† Confidential treatment has been granted for certain portions of this exhibit. These portions have been omitted and filed separately with the SEC.

†† Portions of this exhibit (indicated by asterisks) were omitted in accordance with the rules of the Securities and Exchange Commission.

​

Item 16. Form 10-K Summary

Not applicable.

​

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SIGNATURES

Pursuant to the requirements of Section 13 or 15(d) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, the registrant has duly caused this report to be signed on its behalf by the undersigned thereunto duly authorized.

​ | ​ | ​
​ | SCHOLAR ROCK HOLDING CORPORATION
​ | ​ | ​
Date: March 3, 2026 | By: | /s/ David Hallal
​ | ​ | David Hallal
​ | ​ | Chief Executive Officer (Principal Executive Officer) ​
Date: March 3, 2026 | By: | /s/ Vikas Sinha
​ | ​ | Vikas Sinha
​ | ​ | Chief Financial Officer (Principal Financial and Accounting Officer)

​

​

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POWER OF ATTORNEY

Each person whose individual signature appears below hereby authorizes and appoints David Hallal and Vikas Sinha, and each of them, with full power of substitution and resubstitution and full power to act without the other, as his true and lawful attorney-in-fact and agent to act in his name, place and stead and to execute in the name and on behalf of each person, individually and in each capacity stated below, and to file any and all amendments to this report on Form 10-K, and to file the same, with all exhibits thereto, and other documents in connection therewith, with the Securities and Exchange Commission, granting unto said attorneys-in-fact and agents, and each of them, full power and authority to do and perform each and every act and thing, ratifying and confirming all that said attorneys-in-fact and agents or any of them or their or his substitute or substitutes may lawfully do or cause to be done by virtue thereof.

Pursuant to the requirements of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, this report has been signed below by the following persons on behalf of the registrant and in the capacities and on the dates indicated.

February 19, 2025 | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
Signature | ​ ​ ​ | Title | ​ ​ ​ | Date
​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
/s/ David Hallal | ​ | Chief Executive Officer | ​ | March 3, 2026
David Hallal | ​ | (Principal Executive Officer) | ​ | ​
​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
/s/ Vikas Sinha | ​ | Chief Financial Officer | ​ | March 3, 2026
Vikas Sinha | ​ | (Principal Financial and Accounting Officer) | ​ | ​
​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
/s/ Srinivas Akkaraju | ​ | Director | ​ | March 3, 2026
Srinivas Akkaraju | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
/s/ Richard Brudnick | ​ | Director | ​ | March 3, 2026
Richard Brudnick | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
/s/ Kristina Burow | ​ | Director | ​ | March 3, 2026
Kristina Burow | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
/s/ Jeffrey S. Flier | ​ | Director | ​ | March 3, 2026
Jeffrey S. Flier | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
/s/ Michael Gilman | ​ | Director | ​ | March 3, 2026
Michael Gilman | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
/s/ Katie Peng | ​ | Director | ​ | March 3, 2026
Katie Peng | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
/s/ Joshua Reed | ​ | Director | ​ | March 3, 2026
Joshua Reed | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
/s/ Akshay Vaishnaw | ​ | Director | ​ | March 3, 2026
Akshay Vaishnaw | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​

​

​

​

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SCHOLAR ROCK HOLDING CORPORATION

Index to Financial Statements

Report of Independent Registered Public Accounting Firm (PCAOB ID: 34) | F-2
Report of Independent Registered Public Accounting Firm (PCAOB ID: 42) | F-4
Consolidated Balance Sheets | F-5
Consolidated Statements of Operations and Comprehensive Loss | F-6
Consolidated Statements of Stockholders’ Equity | F-7
Consolidated Statements of Cash Flows | F-8
Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements | F-9

​

​

​

F-1

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REPORT OF INDEPENDENT REGISTERED PUBLIC ACCOUNTING FIRM

To the Stockholders and the Board of Directors of Scholar Rock Holding Corporation

​

Opinion on the Financial Statements

​

We have audited the accompanying consolidated balance sheet of Scholar Rock Holding Corporation and subsidiaries (the "Company") as of December 31, 2025, the related consolidated statements of operations and other comprehensive loss, stockholders' equity, and cash flows, for the year ended December 31, 2025, and the related notes (collectively referred to as the "financial statements"). In our opinion, the financial statements present fairly, in all material respects, the financial position of the Company as of December 31, 2025, and the results of its operations and its cash flows for the year ended December 31, 2025, in conformity with accounting principles generally accepted in the United States of America.

​

Basis for Opinion

​

These financial statements are the responsibility of the Company's management. Our responsibility is to express an opinion on the Company's financial statements based on our audit. We are a public accounting firm registered with the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (United States) (PCAOB) and are required to be independent with respect to the Company in accordance with the U.S. federal securities laws and the applicable rules and regulations of the Securities and Exchange Commission and the PCAOB.

​

We conducted our audit in accordance with the standards of the PCAOB. Those standards require that we plan and perform the audit to obtain reasonable assurance about whether the financial statements are free of material misstatement, whether due to error or fraud. The Company is not required to have, nor were we engaged to perform, an audit of its internal control over financial reporting. As part of our audit, we are required to obtain an understanding of internal control over financial reporting but not for the purpose of expressing an opinion on the effectiveness of the Company's internal control over financial reporting. Accordingly, we express no such opinion.

​

Our audit included performing procedures to assess the risks of material misstatement of the financial statements, whether due to error or fraud, and performing procedures that respond to those risks. Such procedures included examining, on a test basis, evidence regarding the amounts and disclosures in the financial statements. Our audit also included evaluating the accounting principles used and significant estimates made by management, as well as evaluating the overall presentation of the financial statements. We believe that our audit provides a reasonable basis for our opinion.

​

Critical Audit Matter

​

The critical audit matter communicated below is a matter arising from the current-period audit of the financial statements that were communicated or required to be communicated to the audit committee and that (1) relates to accounts or disclosures that are material to the financial statements and (2) involved our especially challenging, subjective, or complex judgments. The communication of critical audit matters does not alter in any way our opinion on the financial statements, taken as a whole, and we are not, by communicating the critical audit matter below, providing a separate opinion on the critical audit matter or on the accounts or disclosures to which it relates.

​

External Prepaid and Accrued Research and Development Expenses– Refer to Notes 2, 5 and 7 to the financial statements

​

Critical Audit Matter Description

​

As shown in Notes 5 and 7 to the financial statements, the Company’s prepaid and accrued external research and development expenses totaled $6.5 million and $14.2 million, respectively, at December 31, 2025. As discussed in Note 2 to the consolidated financial statements, the Company’s prepaid and accrued external research and development expenses are recognized based on various inputs, including open contracts and purchase orders, the level of service performed, contracted costs, invoices received, and progress of studies, clinical trials or other activities based on

F-2

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communication with internal and/or external personnel. Payments for the external research and development activities are due based on the terms of individual arrangements, which may differ from the pattern of costs incurred. Accrued expenses are reflected on the consolidated balance sheet when costs incurred exceed payments made, while prepaid expenses are reflected on the consolidated balance sheet when payments made exceed the costs incurred.

​

We identified prepaid and accrued external research and development expenses as a critical audit matter because of the significant judgment required by management in estimating the progress of the research and development activities conducted, as the progress is not directly observable. This required a high degree of auditor judgment and an increased extent of effort when performing procedures to audit management's estimates of progress and evaluating the results of those procedures.

​

How the Critical Audit Matter Was Addressed in the Audit

​

Our audit procedures related to external prepaid and accrued research and development expenses included the following, among others:

​

| ● | For a sample of contracts with vendors performing research and development activities, we performed the following:

​

| o | Evaluated the appropriateness of the method used by management to develop its estimates of the progress of studies, clinical trials and other related activities.

​

| o | Tested the completeness and accuracy of the underlying data used in the estimates through the inspection of open contracts and purchase orders, correspondence received from vendors, testing of actual billed expenses and testing of subsequent invoices and any pending change orders.

​

| o | Performed corroborating inquiries with Company personnel responsible for overseeing the research and development activities and obtained information directly from the Company’s vendors regarding costs incurred to date.

​

/s/ Deloitte & Touche LLP

​

Boston, Massachusetts

March 3, 2026

​

We have served as the Company’s auditor since 2025.

​

F-3

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REPORT OF INDEPENDENT REGISTERED PUBLIC ACCOUNTING FIRM

​

To the Stockholders and the Board of Directors of Scholar Rock Holding Corporation

​

Opinion on the Financial Statements

​

We have audited the accompanying consolidated balance sheet of Scholar Rock Holding Corporation (the Company) as of December 31, 2024 and the related consolidated statements of operations and comprehensive loss, stockholders’ equity and cash flows for the year ended December 31, 2024, and the related notes (collectively referred to as the “consolidated financial statements”). In our opinion, the consolidated financial statements present fairly, in all material respects, the financial position of the Company at December 31, 2024, and the results of its operations and its cash flows for the year ended December 31, 2024, in conformity with U.S. generally accepted accounting principles.

​

Basis for Opinion

​

These financial statements are the responsibility of the Company's management. Our responsibility is to express an opinion on the Company’s financial statements based on our audits. We are a public accounting firm registered with the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (United States) (PCAOB) and are required to be independent with respect to the Company in accordance with the U.S. federal securities laws and the applicable rules and regulations of the Securities and Exchange Commission and the PCAOB.

​

We conducted our audits in accordance with the standards of the PCAOB. Those standards require that we plan and perform the audit to obtain reasonable assurance about whether the financial statements are free of material misstatement, whether due to error or fraud. The Company is not required to have, nor were we engaged to perform, an audit of its internal control over financial reporting. As part of our audits we are required to obtain an understanding of internal control over financial reporting but not for the purpose of expressing an opinion on the effectiveness of the Company's internal control over financial reporting. Accordingly, we express no such opinion.

​

Our audits included performing procedures to assess the risks of material misstatement of the financial statements, whether due to error or fraud, and performing procedures that respond to those risks. Such procedures included examining, on a test basis, evidence regarding the amounts and disclosures in the financial statements. Our audits also included evaluating the accounting principles used and significant estimates made by management, as well as evaluating the overall presentation of the financial statements. We believe that our audits provide a reasonable basis for our opinion.

​

/s/ Ernst & Young LLP

​

We served as the Company’s auditor from 2015 to 2025.

​

Boston, Massachusetts

February 27, 2025

​

F-4

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SCHOLAR ROCK HOLDING CORPORATION

CONSOLIDATED BALANCE SHEETS

(In thousands, except share and per share data)

​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
​ | ​ ​ ​ | December 31, | ​ ​ ​ | December 31,
​ | ​ ​ ​ | 2025 | ​ | 2024
Assets |  | ​ | ​ |  | ​ | ​
Current assets: |  | ​ | ​ |  | ​ | ​
Cash and cash equivalents | ​ | $ | 323,527 | ​ | $ | 177,878
Marketable securities | ​ |  | 44,036 | ​ |  | 259,400
Prepaid expenses and other current assets | ​ |  | 17,584 | ​ |  | 13,887
Total current assets | ​ |  | 385,147 | ​ |  | 451,165
Property and equipment, net | ​ |  | 1,705 | ​ |  | 2,761
Operating lease right-of-use asset | ​ | ​ | 10,382 | ​ | ​ | 15,644
Restricted cash | ​ |  | 3,807 | ​ |  | 2,407
Other long-term assets | ​ |  | 3,231 | ​ |  | 2,945
Total assets | ​ | $ | 404,272 | ​ | $ | 474,922
Liabilities and Stockholders’ Equity | ​ |  | ​ | ​ |  | ​
Current liabilities: | ​ |  | ​ | ​ |  | ​
Accounts payable | ​ | $ | 10,303 | ​ | $ | 10,095
Accrued expenses | ​ |  | 39,566 | ​ |  | 31,067
Operating lease liability | ​ | ​ | 5,550 | ​ | ​ | 5,774
Total current liabilities | ​ |  | 55,419 | ​ |  | 46,936
Long-term portion of operating lease liability | ​ | ​ | 3,656 | ​ | ​ | 9,206
Long-term debt | ​ | ​ | 99,709 | ​ | ​ | 50,146
Total liabilities | ​ |  | 158,784 | ​ |  | 106,288
Commitments and contingencies (Note 13) | ​ |  | ​ | ​ |  | ​
Stockholders’ equity: | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
Preferred stock, $0.001 par value; 10,000,000 shares authorized; no shares issued and outstanding at December 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024 | ​ | ​ | — | ​ | ​ | —
Common stock, $0.001 par value; 300,000,000 shares authorized; 108,461,354 and 93,823,678 shares issued and outstanding as of December 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024, respectively | ​ |  | 108 | ​ |  | 94
Additional paid-in capital | ​ |  | 1,545,940 | ​ |  | 1,291,095
Accumulated other comprehensive income | ​ |  | 94 | ​ |  | 160
Accumulated deficit | ​ |  | (1,300,654) | ​ |  | (922,715)
Total stockholders’ equity | ​ |  | 245,488 | ​ |  | 368,634
Total liabilities and stockholders’ equity | ​ | $ | 404,272 | ​ | $ | 474,922

​

The accompanying notes are an integral part of these consolidated financial statements.

​

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SCHOLAR ROCK HOLDING CORPORATION

CONSOLIDATED STATEMENTS OF OPERATIONS AND COMPREHENSIVE LOSS

(In thousands, except share and per share data)

​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
​ | ​ | Year Ended December 31,
​ | ​ ​ ​ | 2025 | ​ ​ ​ | 2024
Operating expenses: | ​ |  | ​ | ​ |  | ​
Research and development | ​ | $ | 208,440 | ​ | $ | 184,550
General and administrative | ​ |  | 176,205 | ​ | ​ | 67,504
Total operating expenses | ​ |  | 384,645 | ​ |  | 252,054
Loss from operations | ​ |  | (384,645) | ​ |  | (252,054)
Other income (expense): | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
Interest income | ​ | ​ | 13,900 | ​ | ​ | 12,682
Interest expense | ​ | ​ | (6,893) | ​ | ​ | (6,837)
Other expense, net | ​ | ​ | (301) | ​ | ​ | (85)
Total other income (expense), net | ​ |  | 6,706 | ​ |  | 5,760
Net loss | ​ | $ | (377,939) | ​ | $ | (246,294)
Net loss per share, basic and diluted | ​ | $ | (3.29) | ​ | $ | (2.47)
Weighted average common shares outstanding, basic and diluted | ​ |  | 114,701,154 | ​ |  | 99,838,102
​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
Comprehensive loss: | ​ |  | ​ | ​ |  | ​
Net loss | ​ | $ | (377,939) | ​ | $ | (246,294)
Other comprehensive income (loss): | ​ |  | ​ | ​ |  | ​
Unrealized gain (loss) on marketable securities | ​ |  | (64) | ​ |  | 68
Foreign currency translation adjustments | ​ |  | (2) | ​ |  | —
Total other comprehensive income (loss) | ​ |  | (66) | ​ |  | 68
Comprehensive loss | ​ | $ | (378,005) | ​ | $ | (246,226)

​

The accompanying notes are an integral part of these consolidated financial statements.

​

​

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SCHOLAR ROCK HOLDING CORPORATION

CONSOLIDATED STATEMENTS OF STOCKHOLDERS’ EQUITY

(In thousands, except share data)

​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | Accumulated | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | Additional | ​ | Other | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | Total
​ | ​ | Common Stock | ​ | Paid‑in | ​ | Comprehensive | ​ | Accumulated | ​ | Stockholders’
​ | ​ | Shares | ​ | Amount | ​ | Capital | ​ | Income (Loss) | ​ | Deficit | ​ | Equity
Balance at December 31, 2023 | ​ | 75,979,495 | ​ | $ | 76 | ​ | $ | 901,471 | ​ | $ | 92 | ​ | $ | (676,421) | ​ | $ | 225,218
Unrealized gain on marketable securities | ​ | — | ​ | ​ | — | ​ | ​ | — | ​ | ​ | 68 | ​ | ​ | — | ​ | ​ | 68
Sale of common shares and pre-funded warrants to purchase common shares, net | ​ | 11,858,408 | ​ | ​ | 12 | ​ | ​ | 324,402 | ​ | ​ | — | ​ | ​ | — | ​ | ​ | 324,414
Exercise of stock options | ​ | 1,469,756 | ​ | ​ | 1 | ​ | ​ | 18,974 | ​ | ​ | — | ​ | ​ | — | ​ | ​ | 18,975
Issuance of common shares upon RSU vesting | ​ | 679,694 | ​ | ​ | 1 | ​ | ​ | (1) | ​ | ​ | — | ​ | ​ | — | ​ | ​ | —
Exercise of pre-funded and common warrants | ​ | 3,836,325 | ​ | ​ | 4 | ​ | ​ | 9,621 | ​ | ​ | — | ​ | ​ | — | ​ | ​ | 9,625
Equity-based compensation expense | ​ | — | ​ | ​ | — | ​ | ​ | 36,628 | ​ | ​ | — | ​ | ​ | — | ​ | ​ | 36,628
Net loss | ​ | — | ​ | ​ | — | ​ | ​ | — | ​ | ​ | — | ​ | ​ | (246,294) | ​ | ​ | (246,294)
Balance at December 31, 2024 | ​ | 93,823,678 | ​ | $ | 94 | ​ | $ | 1,291,095 | ​ | $ | 160 | ​ | $ | (922,715) | ​ | $ | 368,634
Unrealized loss on marketable securities | ​ | — | ​ | ​ | — | ​ | ​ | — | ​ | ​ | (64) | ​ | ​ | — | ​ | ​ | (64)
Sale of common shares, net of issuance costs | ​ | 2,767,000 | ​ | ​ | 3 | ​ | ​ | 91,657 | ​ | ​ | — | ​ | ​ | — | ​ | ​ | 91,660
Exercise of stock options | ​ | 1,860,105 | ​ | ​ | 1 | ​ | ​ | 23,810 | ​ | ​ | — | ​ | ​ | — | ​ | ​ | 23,811
Issuance of common shares upon RSU vesting | ​ | 1,331,907 | ​ | ​ | 1 | ​ | ​ | (1) | ​ | ​ | — | ​ | ​ | — | ​ | ​ | —
Exercise of pre-funded and common warrants | ​ | 8,678,664 | ​ | ​ | 9 | ​ | ​ | 63,779 | ​ | ​ | — | ​ | ​ | — | ​ | ​ | 63,788
Equity-based compensation expense | ​ | — | ​ | ​ | — | ​ | ​ | 75,600 | ​ | ​ | — | ​ | ​ | — | ​ | ​ | 75,600
Foreign currency translation adjustments | ​ | — | ​ | ​ | — | ​ | ​ | — | ​ | ​ | (2) | ​ | ​ | — | ​ | ​ | (2)
Net loss | ​ | — | ​ | ​ | — | ​ | ​ | — | ​ | ​ | — | ​ | ​ | (377,939) | ​ | ​ | (377,939)
Balance at December 31, 2025 | ​ | 108,461,354 | ​ | $ | 108 | ​ | $ | 1,545,940 | ​ | $ | 94 | ​ | $ | (1,300,654) | ​ | $ | 245,488

​

​

The accompanying notes are an integral part of these consolidated financial statements.

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SCHOLAR ROCK HOLDING CORPORATION

CONSOLIDATED STATEMENTS OF CASH FLOWS

(In thousands)

​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
​ | ​ | Year Ended
​ | ​ | December 31,
​ | ​ ​ ​ | 2025 | ​ ​ ​ | 2024
Cash flows from operating activities: | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
Net loss | ​ | $ | (377,939) | ​ | $ | (246,294)
Adjustments to reconcile net loss to net cash used in operating activities: | ​ |  | ​ | ​ |  | ​
Depreciation and amortization | ​ |  | 1,658 | ​ |  | 1,937
Amortization of debt discount and debt issuance costs | ​ | ​ | 423 | ​ | ​ | 253
Equity-based compensation | ​ |  | 75,600 | ​ |  | 36,628
Amortization (accretion) of investment securities | ​ | ​ | (3,989) | ​ | ​ | (5,291)
Non-cash operating lease expense | ​ | ​ | 5,262 | ​ | ​ | 5,224
Change in operating assets and liabilities: | ​ |  | ​ | ​ |  | ​
Prepaid expenses and other current assets | ​ |  | (3,697) | ​ |  | (5,770)
Other assets | ​ | ​ | (286) | ​ | ​ | 1,472
Accounts payable | ​ |  | 208 | ​ |  | 6,630
Accrued expenses | ​ |  | 8,499 | ​ |  | 10,533
Operating lease liabilities | ​ | ​ | (5,774) | ​ | ​ | (6,271)
Net cash used in operating activities | ​ |  | (300,035) | ​ | ​ | (200,949)
Cash flows from investing activities: | ​ |  | ​ | ​ |  | ​
Purchases of property and equipment | ​ |  | (602) | ​ | ​ | (98)
Purchases of marketable securities | ​ | ​ | (98,009) | ​ | ​ | (293,158)
Sales and maturities of marketable securities | ​ |  | 317,298 | ​ | ​ | 217,200
Net cash provided by (used in) investing activities | ​ |  | 218,687 | ​ |  | (76,056)
Cash flows from financing activities: | ​ |  | ​ | ​ |  | ​
Proceeds from stock option exercises | ​ | ​ | 23,811 | ​ | ​ | 19,114
Proceeds from pre-funded and common warrant exercises | ​ | ​ | 63,788 | ​ | ​ | 9,625
Proceeds from sale of common shares and pre-funded warrants to purchase common shares, net | ​ | ​ | 91,660 | ​ | ​ | 324,414
Proceeds from debt facility | ​ | ​ | 49,992 | ​ | ​ | —
Debt modification payment | ​ | ​ | — | ​ | ​ | (125)
Proceeds from debt refinancing | ​ | ​ | 24,668 | ​ | ​ | —
Payment of long-term debt | ​ | ​ | (25,520) | ​ | ​ | —
Net cash provided by financing activities | ​ |  | 228,399 | ​ |  | 353,028
Net increase in cash, cash equivalents and restricted cash | ​ |  | 147,051 | ​ |  | 76,023
Effect of exchange rate on cash, cash equivalents and restricted cash | ​ |  | (2) | ​ |  | —
Cash, cash equivalents and restricted cash, beginning of period | ​ |  | 180,285 | ​ | ​ | 104,262
Cash, cash equivalents and restricted cash, end of period | ​ | $ | 327,334 | ​ | $ | 180,285
Supplemental disclosure for non-cash items: | ​ |  | ​ | ​ |  | ​
Operating lease liability adjustment from rent modification | ​ | $ | — | ​ | $ | 9,451
Offering costs in accrued expenses | ​ | $ | — | ​ | $ | 314
Supplemental cash flow information: | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
Cash paid for interest | ​ | $ | 6,066 | ​ | $ | 6,617

​

The accompanying notes are an integral part of these consolidated financial statements.

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SCHOLAR ROCK HOLDING CORPORATION

Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements

1. Nature of the Business and Basis of Presentation

Organization

Scholar Rock Holding Corporation and its subsidiaries (collectively, the “Company”) is a global biopharmaceutical company dedicated to dramatically improving the lives of children and adults with spinal muscular atrophy (“SMA”) and additional rare, severe and debilitating neuromuscular diseases. As a leader in the biology of the transforming growth factor beta (“TGFβ”) superfamily, the Company’s novel understanding of the molecular mechanisms of growth factor activation enabled the development of a proprietary platform for the discovery and development of monoclonal antibodies that locally and selectively target the precursor, or latent, forms of growth factors. Based on the Company’s innovative, proprietary, and scalable technology platform, the Company is building a world-leading anti-myostatin pipeline.

The Company’s lead pipeline product candidates include apitegromab, a subcutaneous formulation of apitegromab, and SRK-439.

Apitegromab is a novel, investigational, fully human monoclonal antibody that inhibits myostatin activation by selectively binding the pro- and latent forms of myostatin in skeletal muscle. Myostatin is a catabolic agent that functions as a negative regulator of muscle mass, therefore inhibition of myostatin results in increased muscle mass and strength. Apitegromab is in development for the treatment of people with SMA and for the treatment of people with facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy (“FSHD”).

Positive data from the successful Phase 3 SAPPHIRE study evaluating apitegromab in children and adults with SMA was reported in October 2024. The Company submitted a U.S. Biologics License Application (“BLA”) to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (“FDA”) in January 2025 and the BLA was granted priority review designation. In September 2025, the Company received a Complete Response Letter (“CRL”) from the FDA related to observations identified during an FDA inspection of a third-party fill-finish facility. The facility was issued a Form 483 by the FDA in July 2025 and the inspection classification of this facility is official action indicated (“OAI”). The observations were related to the facility and were not specific to apitegromab. The CRL did not cite any other approvability concerns, including apitegromab’s efficacy and safety data or the third-party drug substance manufacturer. In November 2025, the Company completed an in-person Type A meeting with the FDA that included participation of representatives from the third-party fill-finish facility. Also in November 2025, the third-party fill-finish facility received a Warning Letter from the FDA and continues to work with the FDA to resolve the outstanding issues cited in the warning letter. The Company plans to resubmit the apitegromab BLA at such time after the facility resolves the cGMP deficiencies identified in the CRL. In March 2025, the Company submitted to the European Medicines Agency (“EMA”) and received validation of its marketing authorisation application (“MAA”) for apitegromab for the treatment of SMA. If apitegromab is approved by the FDA or EMA, the Company expects to initiate a commercial product launch in the applicable jurisdictions upon approval.

The Company continues to develop apitegromab in SMA with its ongoing long-term extension ONYX trial and its Phase 2 OPAL trial in SMA patients under two years of age, which was initiated in the third quarter of 2025. Additionally, a Phase 2 study evaluating apitegromab in patients with FSHD is expected to initiate in mid-2026.

In addition to the current intravenous (“IV”) formulation, the Company is developing a subcutaneous (“SC”) formulation of apitegromab. A Phase 1 study in healthy volunteers has been completed, demonstrating that SC apitegromab has favorable bioavailability and a comparable pharmacodynamic profile relative to IV administered apitegromab. Further development activities are ongoing, including planned FDA and EMA regulatory engagements.

The Company’s clinical-stage pipeline also includes SRK-439, a novel, investigational, subcutaneously administered fully human anti-pro/latent myostatin antibody that has high inhibitory potency while maintaining selectivity towards myostatin. SRK-439 is being developed for the treatment of patients with rare, severe, and debilitating neuromuscular

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diseases. A Phase 1 study of SRK-439 in healthy volunteers is currently underway, with topline data anticipated in the second half of 2026.

As the Company focuses its strategy on rare neuromuscular diseases, the Company is currently seeking partnerships for its additional programs. These programs include: SRK-181, a Phase 2-ready investigational inhibitor of latent TGFβ1 in development for the treatment of patients with solid tumors that are resistant to anti-PD-(L)1 antibody therapies; SRK-373, an investigational, highly selective inhibitor of the latent TGFβ1 isoform with selective activity in the fibrotic extracellular matrix, in preclinical development for the treatment of fibrotic diseases; and SRK-256, an investigational inhibitor of RGMc, or hemojuvelin, in preclinical development for the treatment of iron-restricted anemias. We are also seeking partners to further evaluate the potential for myostatin inhibition in combination with GLP-1 weight loss approaches following our positive Phase 2 EMBRAZE study, demonstrating proof-of-concept in the ability of apitegromab to drive statistically significant preservation of lean mass during tirzepatide-induced weight loss.

Beyond the clinical-stage product candidates, the company’s early-stage pipeline includes additional programs for the treatment of patients with rare, severe, and debilitating neuromuscular diseases. The Company was originally formed in May 2012. Its principal offices are in Cambridge, Massachusetts.

Since its inception, the Company’s operations have focused on research and development of monoclonal antibodies that selectively inhibit activation of growth factors for therapeutic effect, as well as establishing the Company’s intellectual property portfolio and performing research and development activities. The Company has primarily financed its operations through various equity financings, the exercise of stock options and warrants, as well as research and development collaboration agreements and the Company’s debt facility (Note 14).

Revenue generation activities have been limited to two collaborations, both containing research services and the issuance of a license. No revenues have been recorded from the sale of any commercial product.

The Company is subject to a number of risks similar to other life science companies, including, but not limited to, successful discovery and development of its drug candidates, raising additional capital, development by its competitors of new technological innovations, protection of proprietary technology and regulatory approval and market acceptance of the Company’s product candidates. The Company anticipates that it will continue to incur significant operating losses for the next several years as it continues to develop and seek regulatory approval for its product candidates.

​

The Company believes that its existing cash, cash equivalents and marketable securities as of December 31, 2025, along with cash available to the Company (see Note 18), will be sufficient to allow the Company to fund its current operations through at least a period of one year after the date these financial statements are issued.

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Basis of Presentation

The consolidated financial statements include the accounts of Scholar Rock Holding Corporation and its wholly owned subsidiaries. All intercompany balances have been eliminated in consolidation.

These consolidated financial statements have been prepared in conformity with accounting principles generally accepted in the U.S. (“GAAP”). Any reference in these notes to applicable guidance is meant to refer to the authoritative GAAP as found in the Accounting Standards Codification (“ASC”) and Accounting Standards Update (“ASU”) of the Financial Accounting Standards Board (“FASB”).

2. Summary of Significant Accounting Policies

Use of Estimates

The preparation of financial statements in accordance with GAAP requires management to make estimates and judgments that may affect the reported amounts of assets and liabilities and related disclosures of contingent assets and liabilities at the date of the financial statements and the related reporting of revenues and expenses during the reporting

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period. Management bases its estimates on historical experience and on various assumptions that are believed to be reasonable under the circumstances. Actual results could differ from those estimates.

Concentration of Credit Risk and Off-Balance Sheet Risk

The Company has no off-balance sheet risk, such as foreign exchange contracts, option contracts or other foreign-hedging arrangements. The Company follows an investment policy approved by the Board of Directors. Its primary objectives are the preservation of capital and maintenance of liquidity. The Company invests only in fixed income instruments denominated and payable in U.S. dollars including obligations of the U.S. government and its agencies and money market funds registered according to SEC Rule 2a-7 of the Investment Company Act of 1940. All securities must have a readily ascertainable market value, must be readily marketable and be U.S. dollar denominated.

Cash, Cash Equivalents and Restricted Cash

The Company considers highly liquid investments with a maturity of three months or less when purchased to be cash equivalents. Cash equivalents are stated at cost, which approximates market value. At December 31, 2025 and 2024, cash equivalents include money market funds that invest primarily in U.S. government-backed securities and treasuries.

At December 31, 2025 and 2024, restricted cash consists of letters of credit related to its leased facility and a collateral account associated with the Company’s corporate credit card program. The following table reconciles cash, cash equivalents and restricted cash per the balance sheet to the statement of cash flows (in thousands):

​

​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
​ | ​ ​ ​ | As of December 31,
​ | ​ ​ ​ | 2025 | ​ ​ ​ | 2024
Cash and cash equivalents | ​ | $ | 323,527 | ​ | $ | 177,878
Restricted cash | ​ |  | 3,807 | ​ |  | 2,407
​ | ​ | $ | 327,334 | ​ | $ | 180,285

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Foreign Currency Translation

The financial statements of our subsidiaries with functional currencies other than the U.S. dollar are translated into U.S. dollars using period-end exchange rates for assets and liabilities, historical exchange rates for stockholders’ equity and weighted average exchange rates for operating results. Translation gains and losses are included in accumulated other comprehensive income (loss) in stockholders’ equity. Foreign currency transaction gains and losses are included in the results of operations in other income and expense.

Marketable Securities

The Company classifies its marketable securities as available-for-sale. Marketable securities with a remaining maturity date greater than one year are classified as non-current if the Company does not intend to utilize the marketable securities to fund current operations. Marketable securities are maintained by an investment manager and consist of U.S. treasury obligations and government agency securities. Marketable securities are carried at fair value with the unrealized gains and losses included in accumulated other comprehensive income (loss) as a component of stockholders’ equity until realized. Any premium or discount arising at purchase is amortized and/or accreted to interest income and/or expense over the life of the underlying marketable security.

Although available to be sold to meet operating needs or otherwise, securities are generally held through maturity. The cost of securities sold is determined on a specific identification basis, and realized gains and losses are included in other income (expense) within the statement of operations and comprehensive loss.

The Company reviews its portfolio of available-for-sale debt securities, using both quantitative and qualitative factors, to determine if declines in fair value below cost have resulted from a credit loss or other factors. If the decline in fair value

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is due to credit loss factors, a loss is recognized in net income. To date, the Company has not experienced any credit losses and does not believe it is exposed to any significant credit risk on these investments.

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Property and Equipment

Property and equipment are recorded at cost. Expenditures for major renewals or betterments that extend the useful lives of property and equipment are capitalized; expenditures for maintenance and repairs are charged to expense as incurred. Depreciation is calculated on a straight-line basis over the estimated useful lives of the related asset. Property and equipment are depreciated as follows:

​

​ | ​ | ​
​ | ​ | Estimated Useful Life
​ |  | (in Years)
Laboratory equipment |  | 3 – 5
Computer equipment & software | ​ | 3
Furniture & fixtures |  | 5
Leasehold improvements | ​ | Shorter of the useful life or remaining lease term

​

Impairment of Long-Lived Assets

Long-lived assets consist of property and equipment and right-of-use assets. Long-lived assets to be held and used are tested for recoverability whenever events or changes in business circumstances indicate that the carrying amount of the assets may not be fully recoverable. Factors that the Company considers in deciding when to perform an impairment review include significant underperformance of the business in relation to expectations, significant negative industry or economic trends and significant changes or planned changes in the use of the assets. If an impairment review is performed to evaluate a long-lived asset group for recoverability, the Company compares forecasts of undiscounted cash flows expected to result from the use and eventual disposition of the long-lived asset group to its carrying value. An impairment loss would be recognized when estimated undiscounted future cash flows expected to result from the use of an asset group are less than its carrying amount. The impairment loss would be based on the excess of the carrying value of the impaired asset group over its fair value, determined based on discounted cash flows. The Company did not record any impairment losses on long-lived assets during the years ended December 31, 2025 or 2024.

Leases

The Company accounts for leases using ASC Topic 842, Leases (“ASC 842”). At the inception of an arrangement, the Company determines whether the arrangement is or contains a lease based on the unique facts and circumstances present. Leases with a term greater than one year are recognized on the balance sheet as right-of-use assets, lease liabilities and, if applicable, long-term lease liabilities. Operating lease liabilities and their corresponding right-of-use assets are recorded based on the present value of lease payments over the expected remaining lease term. Certain adjustments to the right-of-use asset may be required for items such as incentives received. The interest rate implicit in lease contracts is typically not readily determinable. As a result, the Company utilizes its estimated incremental borrowing rates, which are the rates incurred to borrow on a collateralized basis over a similar term an amount equal to the lease payments in a similar economic environment.

In accordance with the guidance in ASC 842, components of a lease should be split into three categories: lease components (e.g., land, building, etc.), non-lease components (e.g., common area maintenance, consumables, etc.), and non-components (e.g., property taxes, insurance, etc.). Then the fixed and in-substance fixed contract consideration (including any related to non-components) must be allocated based on the respective relative fair values to the lease components and non-lease components. For operating leases, lease expense relating to fixed payments is recognized on a straight-line basis over the term. The Company has elected to not separate lease expense relating to variable payments and therefore expenses costs as incurred.

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Fair Value Measurements

ASC Topic 820, Fair Value Measurement ("ASC 820"), establishes a fair value hierarchy for instruments measured at fair value that distinguishes between assumptions based on market data (observable inputs) and the Company’s own assumptions (unobservable inputs). Observable inputs are inputs that market participants would use in pricing the asset or liability based on market data obtained from sources independent of the Company. Unobservable inputs are inputs that reflect the Company’s assumptions about the inputs that market participants would use in pricing the asset or liability and are developed based on the best information available in the circumstances. ASC 820 identifies fair value as the exchange price, or exit price, representing the amount that would be received to sell an asset or paid to transfer a liability in an orderly transaction between market participants. As a basis for considering market participant assumptions in fair value measurements, ASC 820 establishes a three-tier fair value hierarchy that distinguishes between the following:

Level 1 — Quoted market prices in active markets for identical assets or liabilities.

Level 2 — Inputs other than Level 1 inputs that are either directly or indirectly observable, such as quoted market prices, interest rates and yield curves.

Level 3 — Unobservable inputs developed using estimates of assumptions developed by the Company, which reflect those that a market participant would use.

To the extent the valuation is based on models or inputs that are less observable or unobservable in the market, the determination of fair values requires more judgment. Accordingly, the degree of judgment exercised by the Company in determining fair value is greatest for instruments categorized as Level 3. A financial instrument’s level within the fair value hierarchy is based on the lowest level of any input that is significant to the fair value measurement.

Segment Information

Operating segments are defined as components of an entity about which separate discrete information is available for evaluation by the chief operating decision maker, or decision-making group, in deciding how to allocate resources and in assessing performance. The Company views its operations and manages its business in one operating segment (Note 17).

Research and Development Expenses and Related Accruals/Prepaids

Research and development expenses are expensed as incurred and consist of costs incurred in performing research and development activities, including compensation related expenses for research and development personnel, preclinical and clinical activities including cost of clinical drug supply, commercial drug supply prior to FDA approval, overhead expenses including facilities expenses, materials and supplies, amounts paid to consultants and outside service providers, and depreciation of equipment. Upfront license payments related to acquired technologies which have not yet reached technological feasibility and have no alternative future use are also included in research and development expense.

The Company has entered into various research and development service arrangements under which vendors perform various services. The Company records accrued expenses for estimated costs incurred under the arrangements in excess of vendor invoices received while cash payments to vendors, including those that are nonrefundable, in excess of estimated costs incurred are recorded as prepaid expenses. Prepaid expenses are expensed as the related services are performed or goods are received. When evaluating the adequacy and accuracy of the accrued and prepaid expenses, the Company reviews open contracts and purchase orders, the level of service performed, invoices received, contracted costs, and progress of studies, clinical trials or other activities based on communication with internal and/or external personnel. Significant judgments and estimates are made in determining the accrued and prepaid expense balances at the end of each reporting period, and payments for these activities are due based on the terms of individual arrangements, which may differ from the pattern of costs incurred.

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Equity-Based Compensation

The Company accounts for equity awards, including restricted stock units, performance stock units, equity classified warrants and common stock options, granted as equity-based compensation in accordance with ASC Topic 718, Compensation — Stock Compensation ("ASC 718"). ASC 718 requires all stock-based payments to employees, which includes grants of employee equity awards, to be recognized as expense in the statements of operations based on their grant date fair values.

The fair value of each restricted stock unit is based on the fair value of the Company’s common stock less any purchase price, if applicable. The fair value of each performance stock unit is estimated using a Monte-Carlo simulation, which uses as inputs the fair value of the Company’s common stock and certain subjective assumptions, including the historical stock price volatility, the risk-free rate and expected dividends. The fair value of each stock option award and equity classified warrant is estimated using the Black-Scholes option-pricing model, which uses as inputs the fair value of the Company’s common stock and certain subjective assumptions, including the historical stock price volatility, the expected term of the award, the risk-free rate and expected dividends. Through the second quarter of 2024, expected volatility was calculated based on a blend of the Company’s reported volatility data for the length of time that market data was available for the Company’s stock and the historical data for a representative group of publicly traded companies, for which historical information was available. As of the third quarter of 2024, the Company’s own volatility data covered a period of time that was sufficient to meet the expected term of the granted awards and the blended approach was no longer needed. The historical volatility is generally calculated based on a period of time commensurate with the expected term assumptions. The risk-free interest rate is based on the U.S. Treasury yield curve in effect at the time of grant commensurate with the expected term assumption. The Company uses the simplified method, under which the expected term is presumed to be the midpoint between the vesting date and the end of the contractual term. The Company utilizes this method due to lack of historical exercise data and the plain nature of its stock-based awards. The expected dividend yield is assumed to be zero as the Company has never paid dividends and has no current plans to pay any dividends on common stock.

Compensation expense related to equity awards to employees that are subject to service-based vesting is recognized on a straight-line basis, based on the grant date fair value, over the requisite service period of the award, which is generally the vesting term. For awards subject to performance conditions, the Company recognizes equity-based compensation expense using an accelerated recognition method over the remaining service period when management determines that achievement of the performance condition is probable. Management evaluates whether the achievement of the performance condition is probable at each reporting date. Compensation expense related to equity awards to non-employees for services is recognized based on the grant date fair value, over the period during which services are rendered by such non-employees.

The Company classifies equity-based compensation expense in its consolidated statements of operations and comprehensive loss in the same manner in which the award recipient’s salary and related costs are classified or based on the nature of the services being provided in the case of non-employees.

The Company accounts for forfeitures when they occur.

Comprehensive Loss

Comprehensive loss is the change in equity of a business enterprise during a period from transactions and other events and circumstances from non-owner sources. Comprehensive loss includes net loss and the change in accumulated other comprehensive income (loss) for the period. Accumulated other comprehensive loss consisted of unrealized losses on available-for-sale marketable securities and foreign currency translation adjustments during the period ending December 31, 2025. Accumulated other comprehensive income consisted entirely of unrealized gains on available-for-sale marketable securities during the period ending December 31, 2024.

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Net Loss per Share

The Company applies the two-class method to compute basic and diluted net loss per share. The two-class method determines net income (loss) per share for each class of common and participating securities according to dividends declared or accumulated and participation rights in undistributed earnings. The two-class method requires income (losses) available to common stockholders for the period to be allocated between common and participating securities based upon their respective rights to share in the earnings as if all income (losses) for the period had been distributed. During periods of loss, there is no allocation required under the two-class method since the participating securities do not have a contractual obligation to fund the losses of the Company.

The Company calculates basic net loss per share by dividing net loss by the weighted average number of common shares outstanding, including pre-funded warrants. The Company calculates diluted net loss per share by dividing net loss by the weighted average number of common shares outstanding, as applicable, after giving consideration to the dilutive effect of restricted stock units, performance stock units, warrants and stock options that are outstanding during the period.

Income Taxes

Income taxes are recorded in accordance with ASC Topic 740, Income Taxes ("ASC 740"), which provides for deferred taxes using an asset and liability approach. Under this method, deferred income tax assets and liabilities are recognized based on future income tax consequences attributable to differences between the financial statement carrying amount of existing assets and liabilities, and their respective income tax basis. Deferred income tax assets and liabilities are measured using enacted income tax rates expected to apply to taxable income in the years in which those temporary differences are expected to be recovered or settled.

The Company provides reserves for potential payments of tax to various tax authorities related to uncertain tax positions, as necessary. The tax benefits recorded are based on a determination of whether and how much of a tax benefit taken by the Company in its tax filings or positions is "more likely than not" to be realized following resolution of any uncertainty related to the tax benefit, assuming that the matter in question will be raised by the tax authorities. The Company has not recorded any interest or penalties on any unrecognized tax benefits since its inception.

The Company is open to examination by the Internal Revenue Service for the tax years ended December 31, 2013 to December 31, 2025. Since the Company is in a U.S. loss carryforward position, carryforward tax attributes generated in prior years may still be adjusted upon future examination if they have or will be used in a future period. The Company is currently not under examination by the Internal Revenue Service or any other jurisdictions for any tax years.

Recently Adopted Accounting Pronouncements

In December 2023, the FASB issued ASU 2023-09, Income Taxes (Topic 740): Improvements to Income Tax Disclosures (“ASU 2023-09”), which enhances the transparency of income tax disclosures to provide information to investors to better assess how a company’s operations and related tax risks, tax planning and operational opportunities affect its tax rate and prospects for future cash flows. This requires public entities to disclose additional categories in the rate reconciliation regarding federal and state income taxes and provide more details surrounding reconciling items if a quantitative threshold is met. The Company adopted ASU 2023-09 on January 1, 2025, which did not have a material impact on the financial statements and related disclosures (see Note 11).

Recently Issued Accounting Pronouncements

In November 2024, the FASB issued ASU No. 2024-03, Income Statement - Reporting Comprehensive Income - Expense Disaggregation Disclosures (Subtopic 220-40): Disaggregation of Income Statement Expenses (“ASU 2024-03”), and in January 2025, the FASB issued ASU No. 2025-01, Income Statement - Reporting Comprehensive Income - Expense Disaggregation Disclosures (Subtopic 220-40): Clarifying the Effective Date. ASU 2024-03 requires additional disclosure of the nature of expenses included in the income statement as well as disclosures about specific types of expenses included in the expense captions presented in the income statement. ASU 2024-03, as clarified by ASU 2025-

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01, is effective for public companies for annual periods beginning after December 15, 2026, and interim reporting periods beginning after December 15, 2027. Early adoption is permitted. The Company is still evaluating the impact on its disclosures in future years as a result of the adoption of ASU 2024-03.

​

3. Fair Value of Financial Assets and Liabilities

The following tables summarize the assets and liabilities measured at fair value on a recurring basis at December 31, 2025 and 2024 (in thousands):

​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
​ | ​ | Fair Value Measurements at December 31, 2025
​ | ​ ​ ​ | Total | ​ ​ ​ | Level 1 | ​ ​ ​ | Level 2 | ​ ​ ​ | Level 3
Assets: | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
Cash and cash equivalents: | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
Money market funds | ​ | $ | 309,089 | ​ | $ | 309,089 | ​ | $ | — | ​ | $ | —
Marketable securities: | ​ |  | ​ | ​ |  | ​ | ​ |  | ​ | ​ |  | ​
U.S. treasury obligations and government agency securities | ​ | ​ | 44,036 | ​ | ​ | 44,036 | ​ | ​ | — | ​ | ​ | —
Total assets | ​ | $ | 353,125 | ​ | $ | 353,125 | ​ | $ | — | ​ | $ | —

​

​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
​ | ​ | Fair Value Measurements at December 31, 2024
​ | ​ ​ ​ | Total | ​ ​ ​ | Level 1 | ​ ​ ​ | Level 2 | ​ ​ ​ | Level 3
Assets: | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
Cash and cash equivalents: | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
Money market funds | ​ | $ | 97,290 | ​ | $ | 97,290 | ​ | $ | — | ​ | $ | —
U.S. treasury obligations | ​ | ​ | 63,171 | ​ | ​ | 63,171 | ​ | ​ | — | ​ | ​ | —
Marketable securities: | ​ |  | ​ | ​ |  | ​ | ​ |  | ​ | ​ |  | ​
U.S. treasury obligations and government agency securities | ​ |  | 259,400 | ​ | ​ | 259,400 | ​ | ​ | — | ​ | ​ | —
Total assets | ​ | $ | 419,861 | ​ | $ | 419,861 | ​ | $ | — | ​ | $ | —

​

Level 1 assets include investments in money market funds, U.S. treasury obligations and government agency securities that are valued using quoted market prices in active markets. There were no transfers of assets between fair value measurement levels during the years ended December 31, 2025 and 2024.

The carrying amounts reflected in the balance sheets for prepaid expenses and other current assets, accounts payable, and accrued expenses approximate their fair values at December 31, 2025 and 2024, due to their short-term nature.

The Company believes the terms of its debt reflect current market conditions for an instrument with similar terms and maturity, therefore the carrying value of the Company's debt approximates its fair value based on Level 2 of the fair value hierarchy.

4. Marketable Securities

The following table summarizes the Company’s investments as of December 31, 2025 (in thousands):

​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | Gross | ​ | ​ | ​
​ | ​ | Amortized | ​ | Unrealized | ​ | Estimated
​ | ​ ​ ​ | Cost | ​ ​ ​ | Gains | ​ ​ ​ | Losses | ​ ​ ​ | Fair Value
Marketable securities available-for-sale: | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
U.S. treasury obligations and government agency securities | ​ | $ | 43,940 | ​ | $ | 96 | ​ | $ | — | ​ | $ | 44,036
Total available-for-sale securities | ​ | $ | 43,940 | ​ | $ | 96 | ​ | $ | — | ​ | $ | 44,036

​

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The following table summarizes the Company’s investments as of December 31, 2024 (in thousands):

​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | Gross | ​ | ​ | ​
​ | ​ | Amortized | ​ | Unrealized | ​ | Estimated
​ | ​ ​ ​ | Cost | ​ ​ ​ | Gains | ​ ​ ​ | Losses | ​ ​ ​ | Fair Value
Marketable securities available-for-sale: | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
U.S. treasury obligations and government agency securities | ​ | $ | 259,240 | ​ | $ | 180 | ​ | $ | (20) | ​ | $ | 259,400
Total available-for-sale securities | ​ | $ | 259,240 | ​ | $ | 180 | ​ | $ | (20) | ​ | $ | 259,400

​

The Company believes that U.S. treasury obligations and government agency securities are subject to minimal credit risk. As a result, the Company did not record any charges for credit-related impairments for its available-for-sale securities for the year ended December 31, 2025 and 2024.

5. Prepaid Expenses and Other Current Assets

At December 31, 2025 and 2024, prepaid expenses and other current assets consist of the following (in thousands):

​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
​ | ​ | As of
​ | ​ | December 31, | ​ ​ ​ | December 31,
​ | ​ ​ ​ | 2025 | ​ | 2024
Prepaid external research and development expenses | ​ | $ | 6,509 | ​ | $ | 7,716
Prepaid software | ​ | ​ | 3,905 | ​ | ​ | 2,050
Receivables | ​ | ​ | 2,799 | ​ | ​ | 2,151
Prepaid other | ​ | ​ | 1,450 | ​ | ​ | 534
Prepaid professional services expense | ​ | ​ | 1,276 | ​ | ​ | 419
Prepaid compensation expense | ​ | ​ | 950 | ​ | ​ | 377
Prepaid insurance | ​ | ​ | 695 | ​ | ​ | 640
​ | ​ | $ | 17,584 | ​ | $ | 13,887

​

At December 31, 2025 and 2024, other long-term assets consist of the following (in thousands):

​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
​ | ​ | As of
​ | ​ | December 31, | ​ ​ ​ | December 31,
​ | ​ ​ ​ | 2025 | ​ | 2024
Prepaid external research and development expenses | ​ | $ | 2,588 | ​ | $ | 2,395
Prepaid other | ​ | ​ | 604 | ​ | ​ | 536
Prepaid insurance | ​ | ​ | 39 | ​ | ​ | 14
​ | ​ | $ | 3,231 | ​ | $ | 2,945

​

​

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6. Property and Equipment, Net

At December 31, 2025 and 2024, property and equipment consists of the following (in thousands):

​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
​ | ​ | December 31, | ​ ​ ​ | December 31,
​ | ​ ​ ​ | 2025 | ​ | 2024
Laboratory equipment | ​ | $ | 10,655 | ​ | $ | 10,305
Leasehold improvements | ​ |  | 3,626 | ​ |  | 3,613
Computer equipment & software | ​ | ​ | 1,273 | ​ | ​ | 1,059
Furniture & fixtures | ​ |  | 1,002 | ​ |  | 1,002
Construction in progress | ​ | ​ | 25 | ​ | ​ | —
​ | ​ |  | 16,581 | ​ |  | 15,979
Less: Accumulated depreciation and amortization | ​ |  | (14,876) | ​ |  | (13,218)
​ | ​ | $ | 1,705 | ​ | $ | 2,761

​

Depreciation and amortization expense was $1.7 million and $1.9 million for the years ended December 31, 2025 and 2024, respectively.

7. Accrued Expenses

At December 31, 2025 and 2024, accrued expenses consist of the following (in thousands):

​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
​ | ​ | As of
​ | ​ | December 31, | ​ ​ ​ | December 31,
​ | ​ ​ ​ | 2025 | ​ | 2024
Accrued payroll and related expenses | ​ | $ | 20,114 | ​ | $ | 14,776
Accrued external research and development expense | ​ | ​ | 14,205 | ​ | ​ | 12,116
Accrued professional services expense | ​ | ​ | 3,829 | ​ | ​ | 3,296
Accrued other | ​ | ​ | 1,418 | ​ | ​ | 879
​ | ​ | $ | 39,566 | ​ | $ | 31,067

​

​

8. Preferred Stock

The Board of Directors or any authorized committee thereof is expressly authorized, to the fullest extent permitted by law, to provide by resolution or resolutions for, out of the unissued shares of Preferred Stock, the issuance of the shares of Preferred Stock in one or more series of such stock, and by filing a certificate of designations pursuant to applicable law of the State of Delaware, to establish or change from time to time the number of shares of each such series, and to fix the designations, powers, including voting powers, full or limited, or no voting powers, preferences and the relative, participating, optional or other special rights of the shares of each series and any qualifications, limitations and restrictions thereof.

9. Common Stock

In June 2024, the stockholders approved an amendment to the Company’s amended and restated certificate of incorporation to increase the number of authorized shares of common stock from 150,000,000 to 300,000,000.

In October 2024, the Company entered into an underwriting agreement (the “Underwriting Agreement”) with J.P. Morgan Securities LLC, Jefferies LLC and Piper Sandler & Co., as representatives of the several underwriters named therein (the “Underwriters”), relating to the issuance and sale of an aggregate of 10,265,488 shares of the Company’s common stock at $28.25 per share and pre-funded warrants to purchase 353,983 shares of its common stock. The offering price per pre-funded warrant was $28.2499, which equals the per share public offering price for the common stock less the $0.0001 exercise price for each such pre-funded warrant. The pre-funded warrants are exercisable at any time and only expire when exercised in full. The offering closed on October 10, 2024. Pursuant to the Underwriting Agreement, the Underwriters were granted a 30-day option to purchase up to 1,592,920 additional shares (the “Option

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Shares”) of common stock, which was exercised in full on October 16, 2024. Total proceeds of the transaction, including the Option Shares were approximately $324.4 million, net of underwriting discounts and estimated offering expenses.

The Company has had a sales agreement in place during various time periods with Jefferies LLC (“Jefferies”) with respect to an at-the-market (“ATM”) offering program. Under this program, the Company is able to offer and sell, from time to time at its sole discretion, shares of its common stock through Jefferies as its sales agent. In an ATM offering, exchange-listed companies incrementally sell newly issued shares into the secondary trading market through a designated broker-dealer at prevailing market prices. The current ATM agreement with Jefferies, established in November 2022, allows for the sale of shares of common stock from time to time in “at the market” offerings through Jefferies as the Company’s sales agent. As of December 31, 2025, the Company has sold 3,386,290 shares, generating net proceeds of $96.9 million, under the ATM program. Of this amount, the Company sold 2,767,000 shares of its common stock under the ATM program during the year ended December 31, 2025, generating net proceeds of $91.7 million.

​

The Company has issued pre-funded warrants to purchase common stock, as well as warrants to purchase common stock as part of its financing activities. Both the pre-funded warrants and warrants meet the conditions for equity classification and are recorded as a component of stockholders’ equity within additional paid-in capital. In October 2024, June 2022 and November 2020, the Company issued 353,983, 25,510,205 and 2,179,487 pre-funded warrants, respectively. During the years ended December 31, 2025 and 2024, 0 and 2,526,833, respectively of the Company’s pre-funded warrants were exercised. As of December 31, 2025, the Company has 17,362,147 pre-funded warrants outstanding. In June 2022, the Company also issued 10,459,181 warrants with an exercise price of $7.35. During the years ended December 31, 2025 and 2024, 8,678,664 and 1,309,492, respectively of the Company’s warrants were exercised. As of December 31, 2025, all of the common warrants outstanding associated with the June 2022 financing have been exercised.

​

In October 2025, the Company issued 250,000 warrants with an exercise price of $28.59 for non-employee services. Warrants issued to non-employees in connection with providing services meet the conditions for equity classification and are recorded as a component of stockholders’ equity within additional paid in capital. There were no exercises of the warrants issued for non-employee services during the year ended December 31, 2025.

​

Shares Reserved For Future Issuance

As of December 31, 2025, the Company had common shares reserved for issuance as follows:

​

​ | ​ | ​
​ | ​ | As of
​ | ​ | December 31,
​ | ​ ​ ​ | 2025
Common shares reserved for exercise of pre-funded warrants | ​ | 17,362,147
Common shares reserved for issuance upon exercise of outstanding warrants | ​ | 250,000
Common shares reserved for exercise of outstanding stock options, unvested restricted stock units and unvested performance stock units under the 2017 and 2018 Plans | ​ | 7,613,385
Common shares reserved for exercise of outstanding stock options, unvested restricted stock units and unvested performance stock units under the 2022 Inducement Plan | ​ | 4,616,014
Common shares reserved for future issuance under the 2018 Plan | ​ | 4,059,319
Common shares reserved for future issuance under the 2022 Inducement Plan | ​ | 1,160,822
Common shares reserved for future issuance under the 2018 ESPP | ​ | 2,550,305
​ | ​ | 37,611,992

​

​

10. Equity-Based Compensation

Equity Plans

As of December 31, 2025, the Company has four active equity plans, the 2018 Stock Option and Incentive Plan (the “2018 Plan”), the 2017 Stock Option and Incentive Plan (the “2017 Plan”), the 2018 Employee Stock Purchase Plan (the “2018 ESPP”) and the 2022 Inducement Equity Plan (the “2022 Inducement Plan”).

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2018 Stock Option and Incentive Plan

The 2018 Plan has replaced the 2017 Plan as no additional awards will be granted under that plan following the consummation of the Initial Public Offering (“IPO”).

The 2018 Plan provides for the grant of equity-based incentive awards, including incentive stock options, non-qualified stock options, restricted stock awards, unrestricted stock awards and restricted stock units to the Company’s officers, employees, directors and other key persons (including consultants). Stock options and restricted stock units granted under the 2018 Plan to employees generally vest over four years. The shares of common stock underlying any awards that are forfeited, cancelled, repurchased or are otherwise terminated by the Company under the 2018 Plan will be added back to the shares of common stock available for issuance under the 2018 Plan.

The 2018 Plan provides that the number of shares reserved and available for issuance under the plan will automatically increase each January 1, beginning on January 1, 2019, by 4% of the outstanding number of shares of common stock on the immediately preceding December 31 or such lesser number of shares as determined by the Board of Directors or compensation committee (the “Annual Increase”). These limits are subject to adjustment in the event of a stock split, stock dividend or other change in the Company’s capitalization.

2017 Stock Option and Incentive Plan

The 2017 Plan provides for the grant of incentive stock options, non-qualified stock options, restricted stock awards, unrestricted stock awards and restricted stock units. Stock options granted under the 2017 Plan to employees generally vest over four years. The Company no longer issues grants from the 2017 Plan. The shares of common stock underlying any awards that are forfeited, cancelled, repurchased or are otherwise terminated by the Company under the 2017 Plan will be added back to the shares of common stock available for issuance under the 2018 Plan.

2018 Employee Stock Purchase Plan

At December 31, 2025 there were 2,550,305 shares available to grant under the 2018 ESPP and no shares had been issued. The ESPP provides that the number of shares reserved and available for issuance will automatically increase each January 1, beginning on January 1, 2019 through January 1, 2028, by the lesser of (i) 353,614 shares of common stock, (ii) 1% of the outstanding number of shares of the Company’s common stock on the immediately preceding December 31 or (iii) such lesser number of shares as determined by the 2018 ESPP administrator. The number of shares reserved under the 2018 ESPP is subject to adjustment in the event of a stock split, stock dividend or other change in the Company’s capitalization.

2022 Inducement Equity Plan

The 2022 Inducement Plan provides for the grant of non-qualified stock options, stock appreciation rights, restricted stock awards, restricted stock units, unrestricted stock awards and dividend equivalent rights to individuals that were not previously an employee or director of the Company or individuals returning to employment after a bona fide period of non-employment with the Company. Stock options and restricted stock units granted under the 2022 Inducement Plan to employees generally vest over four years. The shares of common stock underlying any awards that are forfeited, cancelled, repurchased or are otherwise terminated by the Company under the 2022 Inducement Plan will be added back to the shares of common stock available for issuance under the 2022 Inducement Plan. The 2022 Inducement Plan was approved for 1,000,000 shares of common stock in June 2022. Since its inception and through December 31, 2025, an additional 6,000,000 shares of common stock have been authorized for issuance under the 2022 Inducement Plan.

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Total Equity-Based Compensation Expense

The Company recorded equity-based compensation expense related to all equity-based awards, which was allocated as follows in the consolidated statements of operations and comprehensive loss for the years ended December 31, 2025 and 2024 (in thousands):

​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
​ | ​ | Year Ended
​ | ​ | December 31,
​ | ​ ​ ​ | 2025 | ​ ​ ​ | 2024
Research and development expense | ​ | $ | 20,676 | ​ | $ | 16,002
General and administrative expense | ​ |  | 54,924 | ​ |  | 20,626
​ | ​ | $ | 75,600 | ​ | $ | 36,628

​

During the year ended December 31, 2025, the Company entered into separation agreements with five employees. Per the separation terms, certain stock option awards and RSUs were amended and may provide for continued vesting, accelerated vesting, and extended time to exercise vested options. As a result, equity-based compensation expense during the year ended December 31, 2025 includes $13.5 million related to the modification of certain equity awards. No equity modifications occurred during the year ended December 31, 2024.

The following table summarizes the Company’s unrecognized equity-based compensation expense as of December 31, 2025:

​

​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
​ | ​
​ | As of December 31, 2025
​ | ​ | Unrecognized Expense (in thousands) | ​ ​ ​ | Weighted Average Remaining Period of Recognition (years)
RSUs | $ | 66,347 | ​ | 2.6
Performance stock units (“PSUs”) | ​ | 17,593 | ​ | 3.3
Stock options | ​ | 69,722 | ​ | 2.7
​ | $ | 153,662 | ​ | ​

​

Restricted Stock Units

The following table summarizes the Company’s RSU activity for the current year:

​

​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | Weighted
​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | Average Grant
​ | ​ ​ ​ | Number of Units | ​ ​ ​ | Date Fair Value
RSUs as of December 31, 2024 |  | 3,486,668 | ​ | $ | 13.86
Granted |  | 2,204,642 | ​ | $ | 34.14
Vested |  | (1,331,907) | ​ | $ | 13.89
Forfeited |  | (1,075,464) | ​ | $ | 19.84
RSUs as of December 31, 2025 |  | 3,283,939 | ​ | $ | 25.50

​

The total fair value of RSUs vested during the years ended December 31, 2025 and 2024 was $49.5 million and $9.7 million, respectively.

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Performance Stock Units

The following table summarizes the Company’s PSU activity for the current year:

​

​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | Weighted
​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | Average Grant
​ | ​ ​ ​ | Number of Units | ​ ​ ​ | Date Fair Value
PSUs as of December 31, 2024 |  | — | ​ | $ | —
Granted |  | 1,100,000 | ​ | $ | 28.63
PSUs as of December 31, 2025 |  | 1,100,000 | ​ | $ | 28.63

​

In April 2025, the Company granted PSUs to certain employees. The fair value of the PSUs are estimated using a Monte Carlo simulation model. The Monte Carlo simulation model requires key inputs for risk-free interest rate, dividend yield and volatility. The number of PSUs granted represents the target number of units that are eligible to vest based on the Company’s common stock achieving certain price targets and time-based vesting over four years. The Company concluded that issued PSUs are equity-based awards and include market and service-based vesting conditions. Participants may ultimately earn up to 250% of the target number of units granted based on the degree of actual performance metric achievement.

No PSUs vested during the year ended December 31, 2025.

Stock Options

The following table summarizes the Company’s stock option activity for the current year:

​

​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | Weighted | ​ | ​ | ​
​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | Weighted | ​ | Average | ​ | ​ | ​
​ | ​ | Number of | ​ | Average | ​ | Remaining | ​ | Aggregate
​ | ​ ​ ​ | Shares | ​ ​ ​ | Exercise Price | ​ ​ ​ | Contractual Term | ​ ​ ​ | Intrinsic Value
​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | (in years) | ​ | (in thousands)
Outstanding as of December 31, 2024 |  | 8,469,926 | ​ | $ | 15.19 | ​ | 7.83 | ​ | $ | 244,677
Granted |  | 2,804,296 | ​ | $ | 34.23 | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
Exercised | ​ | (1,860,105) | ​ | $ | 12.80 | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
Cancelled |  | (1,568,657) | ​ | $ | 22.70 | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
Outstanding as of December 31, 2025 |  | 7,845,460 | ​ | $ | 21.06 | ​ | 6.72 | ​ | $ | 185,525
Options exercisable as of December 31, 2025 |  | 4,125,011 | ​ | $ | 16.48 | ​ | 4.93 | ​ | $ | 118,791

​

Using the Black-Scholes option pricing model, the weighted average grant date fair value of options granted during the years ended December 31, 2025 and 2024 was $28.72 and $11.79, respectively.

The following weighted average assumptions were used in determining the fair value of options granted in the years ended December 31, 2025 and 2024:

​

​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
​ | Year Ended | ​
​ | December 31, | ​
​ | 2025 | ​ ​ ​ | 2024 | ​
Risk-free interest rate | 4.06 | % | 4.09 | %
Expected dividend yield | 0.0 | % | 0.0 | %
Expected term (in years) | 6.07 | ​ | 6.01 | ​
Expected volatility | 108.28 | % | 92.30 | %

​

​

11. Income Taxes

For the years ended December 31, 2025 and 2024, the loss before income taxes consisted of the following (in thousands):

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​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
​ | ​ ​ ​ | For Year Ended
​ | ​ | December 31,
​ | ​ ​ ​ | 2025 | ​ ​ ​ | 2024
Domestic | ​ | $ | (377,734) | ​ | $ | (246,294)
Foreign | ​ |  | (205) | ​ |  | —
Total | ​ | $ | (377,939) | ​ | $ | (246,294)

​

The Company has not recorded a current tax provision for the years ended December 31, 2025 and 2024.

The effective income tax rate differed from the amount computed by applying the federal statutory rate to the Company’s loss before income taxes as follows (in thousands):

​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
​ | ​ | ​ | For Year Ended |
​ | ​ | ​ | December 31, |
​ | ​ ​ ​ | ​ | 2025 | ​
Tax effected at statutory rate |  | $ | (79,367) | ​ | 21.0 | %
State taxes |  | ​ | — | ​ | — | ​
Foreign tax effects |  |  | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
Other foreign jurisdictions | ​ | ​ | 43 | ​ | — | ​
Effect of cross border transactions |  | ​ | — | ​ | — | ​
Enactment of new tax laws |  | ​ | — | ​ | — | ​
Nontaxable or nondeductible items |  | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
Stock compensation |  |  | (7,831) | ​ | 2.1 | ​
Limitation on executive compensation |  |  | 8,850 | ​ | (2.3) | ​
Other |  | ​ | 182 | ​ | (0.1) | ​
Tax credits |  | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
Research & development credits |  | ​ | (3,167) | ​ | 0.8 | ​
Orphan drug credits |  |  | (16,047) | ​ | 4.3 | ​
Change in valuation allowance | ​ | ​ | 97,362 | ​ | (25.8) | ​
Change in unrecognized tax benefits | ​ | ​ | — | ​ | — | ​
Other items |  | ​ | (25) | ​ | — | ​
​ |  | $ | — | ​ | — | %

​

​ | ​ | ​ | ​
​ | ​ | For Year Ended |
​ | ​ | December 31, |
​ | ​ ​ ​ | 2024 | ​
Tax effected at statutory rate |  | 21.0 | %
State taxes |  | 5.9 | ​
Stock compensation |  | (0.5) | ​
Non-deductible expenses |  | (0.3) | ​
Federal research and development credits |  | 5.8 | ​
Other | ​ | (0.8) | ​
Change in valuation allowance |  | (31.1) | ​
​ |  | — | %

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​

The amount of cash income taxes paid (net of refunds) during the year are as follows (in thousands):

​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
​ | ​ | ​ | For Year Ended |
​ | ​ | ​ | December 31, |
​ | ​ ​ ​ | ​ | 2025 | ​
Federal |  | $ | — | ​
State |  | ​ | ​ | ​
Massachusetts |  |  | 37 | ​
New Hampshire |  | ​ | 5 | ​
All other states |  | ​ | 4 | ​
Foreign | ​ | ​ | — | ​
Total |  | $ | 46 | ​

​

​

Deferred tax assets (liabilities) consist of the following at December 31, 2025 and 2024 (in thousands):

​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
​ | ​ ​ ​ | As of
​ | ​ | December 31,
​ | ​ ​ ​ | 2025 | ​ ​ ​ | 2024
Deferred tax assets: | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
Net operating loss carryforwards | ​ | $ | 247,969 | ​ | $ | 139,160
Tax credits | ​ |  | 82,317 | ​ |  | 61,027
Capitalized research & development | ​ | ​ | 64,991 | ​ | ​ | 80,357
Stock based compensation | ​ | ​ | 13,568 | ​ | ​ | 8,920
Operating lease liability | ​ | ​ | 2,431 | ​ | ​ | 3,971
Reserve and accruals | ​ | ​ | 4,623 | ​ | ​ | 4,139
Total gross deferred tax assets | ​ |  | 415,899 | ​ |  | 297,574
Valuation allowance | ​ |  | (413,017) | ​ |  | (293,064)
Total deferred tax assets | ​ | ​ | 2,882 | ​ | ​ | 4,510
Total deferred tax liabilities: | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
Operating lease right-of-use asset | ​ | ​ | (2,742) | ​ | ​ | (4,148)
Fixed and intangible assets | ​ |  | (140) | ​ |  | (362)
Total deferred tax liabilities | ​ | ​ | (2,882) | ​ | ​ | (4,510)
Total net deferred tax assets | ​ | $ | — | ​ | $ | —

​

Total Net Deferred Tax Assets

Deferred tax assets are reduced by a valuation allowance if, based on the weight of available positive and negative evidence, it is more likely than not that some portion or all of the deferred tax assets will not be realized. Accordingly, a full valuation allowance has been established against the net deferred tax assets as of December 31, 2025 and 2024. The valuation allowance for deferred tax assets increased by $120.0 million and $76.5 million in 2025 and 2024, respectively. This increase mainly relates to the establishment of a valuation allowance against the Company’s net deferred tax assets in connection with net operating losses generated in each year and additional tax credit carryforwards generated. As of December 31, 2025, the Company had approximately $921.9 million and $861.4 million of Federal and State operating loss carryforwards respectively, which begin to expire in 2032, except for $871.4 million of the Company’s federal net operating loss carryforwards, and $3.2 million of state net operating losses that do not expire. These loss carryforwards may be available to reduce future taxable income, if any. These loss carryforwards are subject to review and possible adjustment by the appropriate taxing authorities. As of December 31, 2025, the Company also had federal and state credit carryforwards of $74.1 million and $10.4 million, respectively, which begin to expire in 2034 and 2032, respectively. The amount of loss and credit carryforwards that may be utilized in any future period may be limited based upon changes in the ownership of the Company. Additionally, the deductibility of federal net operating

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losses generated after December 31, 2017 and the indefinite state net operating losses is limited to 80% of the Company’s taxable income in any future taxable year.

The Company follows the provisions of ASC 740-10, “Accounting for Uncertainty in Income Taxes,” which specifies how tax benefits for uncertain tax positions are to be recognized, measured, and recorded in financial statements; requires certain disclosures of uncertain tax matters; specifies how reserves for uncertain tax positions should be classified on the balance sheet; and provides transition and interim period guidance, among other provisions. As of December 31, 2025 and 2024, the Company has not recorded any amounts for uncertain tax positions. The Company’s policy is to recognize interest and penalties accrued on any uncertain tax positions as a component of income tax expense, if any, in its statements of income.

The Company’s net operating loss and tax credit carryforwards may become subject to an annual limitation in the event of certain cumulative changes in the ownership interest of significant shareholders over a three-year period in excess of 50 percent as defined under Section 382 and 383 of the U.S. Internal Revenue Code of 1986, respectively, as well as similar state provisions. The amount of the annual limitation is determined based on the value of the Company immediately prior to the ownership change. The Company conducted a Section 382 study covering the period of November 26, 2013 through December 31, 2023. The study concluded that ownership changes occurred during that period which limit the amount of the Company’s net operating losses and tax credit carryforwards that can be utilized before expiring. The carryforwards disclosed represent the amount of attributes that can be utilized based on the results of the study.

​

All of the Company’s tax years will remain open for examination by the federal and state tax authorities to the extent that the Company's tax attributes are utilized in future years to offset income or income taxes.

12. Leases

Operating Lease

In November 2019, the Company entered into a lease of office and laboratory space at 301 Binney Street in Cambridge, Massachusetts to be used as its new corporate headquarters (“the Lease”). The expiration date of the Lease was originally in August 2025 and included an option to extend the term by two years. The base rent under the original Lease was $6.9 million per year, subject to an annual increase of 3.5%. Variable lease payments include the Company’s allocated share of costs incurred and expenditures made by the landlord in the operation and management of the building. The Lease included incentives of $14.1 million in the form of an allowance for tenant improvements related to the design and build out of the space. In connection with the Lease, the Company has secured a letter of credit for $2.3 million which renews automatically each year.

​

In May 2024, the Company entered into the First Amendment (the “Lease Amendment”) to the Lease to extend the term for approximately two years, commencing on August 19, 2025 (the “First Extension Term”) with the base rent to start at approximately $6.2 million per year, followed by a 3% annual increase. Pursuant to the Lease Amendment, the Company also has an option to extend the term of the Lease by five years, upon the expiration of the First Extension Term.

​

In October 2025, the Company entered into a lease of office space in Zug, Switzerland (the “Switzerland Lease”). The Switzerland Lease commencement date is January 1, 2026, which is when the Company gained access to the space under the terms of the lease, and an expiration date of December 31, 2029, with a minimum lease term of twelve months. The base rent under the Switzerland lease is CHF 276,000 per year.

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Other information related to the Lease is as follows (in thousands, except lease term and discount rate):

​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
​ | ​ | Year Ended | ​
​ | ​ ​ ​ | December 31, | ​
​ | ​ | 2025 | ​ | 2024 | ​
Lease cost: | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
Operating lease cost | ​ | $ | 6,856 | ​ | $ | 7,004 | ​
Variable lease cost | ​ | ​ | 1,533 | ​ | ​ | 1,449 | ​
Total lease cost | ​ | $ | 8,389 | ​ | $ | 8,453 | ​

​

​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
​ | Year Ended | ​
​ | December 31, | ​
​ | 2025 | ​ | 2024 | ​
Other information: | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
Operating cash flows used for operating leases | $ | 7,368 | ​ | $ | 8,051 | ​
Weighted average remaining lease term | ​ | 1.7 | ​ | ​ | 2.7 | ​
Weighted average incremental borrowing rate | ​ | 13.1 | % | ​ | 13.1 | %

​

The following is a maturity analysis of the annual undiscounted cash flows reconciled to the carrying value of the operating lease liabilities as of December 31, 2025 (in thousands):

​ | ​ | ​ | ​
Year Ending December 31, | ​ ​ ​ | ​ | ​
2026 | ​ |  | 6,433
2027 | ​ | ​ | 3,818
Total lease payments | ​ | ​ | 10,251
Less imputed interest | ​ | ​ | (1,045)
Total operating lease liability | ​ | $ | 9,206
Short-term portion of operating lease liability | ​ | ​ | 5,550
Long-term portion of operating lease liability | ​ | ​ | 3,656

​

​

​

13. Commitments and Contingencies

Legal Proceedings

The Company, from time to time, may be party to litigation arising in the ordinary course of its business. The Company was not subject to any material legal proceedings during the years ended December 31, 2025 and 2024.

14. Debt

On October 16, 2020 (the “Closing Date”) the Company entered into a Loan and Security Agreement with Oxford Finance LLC (“Oxford”) and Silicon Valley Bank (“SVB”) for $50.0 million (the “Loan and Security Agreement”), which was to increase the Company’s borrowing capacity. Pursuant to the Loan and Security Agreement, the Company was required to maintain cash equal to the lesser of 100% of the Company’s consolidated cash or 105% of the dollar amount of the outstanding debt.

​

On February 10, 2025, the Company entered into an Amended and Restated Loan and Security Agreement (the “Amended and Restated Loan and Security Agreement”) with Oxford. The Amended and Restated Loan and Security Agreement amends and restates in its entirety that certain Loan and Security Agreement, as amended.

The Amended and Restated Loan and Security Agreement provides for term loans in an aggregate principal amount of up to $200.0 million (each, a “Term Loan” and together, the “Term Loans”) subject to funding in four tranches. The

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Amended and Restated Loan and Security Agreement consolidates the existing outstanding loan tranches solely with Oxford and also extends the interest-only payment period through March 2029, with principal payments to commence in April 2029. The maturity date of the loan was extended to February 1, 2030. If certain business and development milestones are achieved, the interest-only payment period may be extended by an additional twelve months, and the maturity date will be extended to February 1, 2031. In conjunction with the Amended and Restated Loan and Security Agreement, the Company was required to pay $0.9 million, which included $0.5 million to SVB for the final payment on the outstanding tranche.

The outstanding principal of each Term Loan has an annual interest rate of (a) the greater of (i) the 1-Month CME Term SOFR on the last business day of the month that immediately precedes the month in which the interest will accrue and (ii) 3%, plus (b) 5.5%. Interest is payable on a monthly basis based on the principal amount outstanding during the preceding month. In addition, the Company is required to pay Oxford a final payment fee equal to 2.00% of the original principal amount of each Term Loan advanced to the Company.

On September 19, 2025, the Company entered into a Third Amendment to the Amended and Restated Loan and Security Agreement (the “Third Amendment”) with Oxford. Pursuant to the Third Amendment, the Company was required to maintain cash equal to the lesser of 100% of the Company’s consolidated cash or 115% of the dollar amount of the outstanding debt in a U.S. controlled bank account.

​

On September 29, 2025, the Company received $50.0 million from the next available tranche under the Amended and Restated Loan and Security Agreement. To date, the Company has received $100.0 million of Term Loans. The remaining two tranches, each in an amount of $50.0 million, are available to be borrowed (a) in the case of the third tranche, after the achievement of certain development and business performance milestones until September 30, 2026 and (b) in the case of the fourth tranche, after the achievement of certain development and business performance milestones until December 31, 2027.

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The following table shows required principal payments (excluding interest fees), during the next five years on debt outstanding at December 31, 2025 (in thousands):

​

​ | ​ | ​ | ​
Year Ending December 31, | ​ ​ ​ | Total future payments
2026 | ​ | $ | —
2027 | ​ | ​ | —
2028 | ​ | ​ | —
2029 | ​ | ​ | 81,818
2030 | ​ | ​ | 18,182
Total payments | ​ | $ | 100,000

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The Company incurred costs on behalf of the lender recorded as a debt discount of $0.5 million and incurred debt issuance costs of $0.1 million, both of which are recorded as a deduction from the carrying amount of the debt and are being amortized as interest expense over the term of the loan. The final payment fee will be treated as an additional debt discount and accreted to the debt balance over the term.

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For the years ended December 31, 2025 and 2024, the Company recorded total interest expense for the debt of $6.3 million and $6.6 million, respectively.

15. Net Loss per Share

The Company calculates basic net loss per share by dividing net loss by the weighted average number of common shares outstanding. The weighted average number of common shares used in the basic and diluted net loss per share calculation includes the pre-funded warrants issued in connection with the Company’s November 2020, June 2022 and October 2024 follow-on offerings as the pre-funded warrants are exercisable at any time for nominal cash consideration. The Company has generated a net loss in all periods presented, so the basic and diluted net loss per share are the same, as the inclusion of the potentially dilutive securities would be anti-dilutive.

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Basic and diluted net loss per share is calculated as follows (in thousands, except share and per share data):

​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
​ | ​ ​ ​ | Year Ended | ​ ​ ​ | Year Ended
​ | ​ ​ ​ | December 31, 2025 | ​ ​ ​ | December 31, 2024
Net loss | ​ | $ | (377,939) | ​ | $ | (246,294)
Weighted average common shares outstanding, basic and diluted | ​ |  | 114,701,154 | ​ |  | 99,838,102
Net loss per share, basic and diluted | ​ | $ | (3.29) | ​ | $ | (2.47)

​

The following table sets forth the outstanding common stock equivalents, presented based on amounts outstanding at each period end, that have been excluded from the calculation of diluted net loss per share for the periods indicated because their inclusion would have been anti-dilutive:

​

​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
​ | ​ | As of December 31,
​ | ​ ​ ​ | 2025 | ​ ​ ​ | 2024
RSUs | ​ | 3,283,939 | ​ | 3,486,668
PSUs | ​ | 1,100,000 | ​ | —
Stock options | ​ | 7,845,460 | ​ | 8,469,926
Warrants | ​ | 250,000 | ​ | 8,678,664
​ | ​ | 12,479,399 | ​ | 20,635,258

​

​

16. Retirement Plans

The Company sponsors a 401(k) retirement plan, in which substantially all U.S. employees are eligible to participate upon employment. Participants may contribute a percentage of their annual compensation to this plan, subject to statutory limitations. Effective January 1, 2020, the Company adopted a policy to match 50% of the employee contributions to the 401(k) plan up to a maximum of 6% of the participating employee’s eligible earnings, resulting in a maximum company match of 3% of the participating employee’s eligible earnings subject to statutory limitations. The Company recognized $1.9 million and $1.1 million in expense related to the match during the years ended December 31, 2025 and 2024, respectively.

Beginning in 2025, the Company sponsors a defined contribution pension plan for its employees in Ireland. Participants contribute a percentage of their annual compensation to this plan, subject to statutory requirements. The Company contributes 10% of the participating employee’s eligible earnings. The Company recognized an immaterial amount of expense during the year ended December 31, 2025.

17. Segment Reporting

The Company operates and manages its business on a consolidated basis as a single reportable and single operating segment for the purposes of assessing performance and making operating decisions. The Company’s chief executive officer, who is the chief operating decision maker (“CODM”), reviews the Company’s financial information on a consolidated basis for purposes of evaluating financial performance and allocating resources. When evaluating the Company’s financial performance, the CODM regularly reviews net loss. The CODM considers net loss in making decisions on how to allocate resources. Net loss is used to monitor budget versus actual results in an effort to refine forecasts and control costs. The measure of segment assets is reported on the balance sheet as total consolidated assets. All of the Company's long-lived assets are held in the United States.

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The following table presents significant expense information about the Company’s operating segment:

​

​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
​ | ​ | ​ | Year Ended December 31,
​ | ​ | 2025 | ​ | 2024
Operating expenses: | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
Employee related expense(1) | ​ | $ | 119,262 | ​ | $ | 68,790
External R&D expense - Apitegromab(3) | ​ | ​ | 89,802 | ​ | ​ | 78,290
External R&D expense - SRK-181 | ​ | ​ | 2,408 | ​ | ​ | 9,957
External R&D expense - SRK-439(3) | ​ | ​ | 8,969 | ​ | ​ | 11,638
External R&D expense - Early research and other(3) | ​ | ​ | 6,677 | ​ | ​ | 3,047
External expense - G&A | ​ | ​ | 56,083 | ​ | ​ | 22,384
Other segment items(2) | ​ | ​ | 24,187 | ​ | ​ | 19,383
​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
Equity-based compensation expense | ​ | ​ | 75,600 | ​ | ​ | 36,628
Depreciation and amortization expense | ​ | ​ | 1,657 | ​ | ​ | 1,937
​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
Other non-operating expense/(income), net(3) | ​ | ​ | (6,706) | ​ | ​ | (5,760)
​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
Net loss | ​ | $ | 377,939 | ​ | $ | 246,294
​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​

(1) Excludes equity-based compensation expense.

(2) Consists of other segment expenses related to supplies, corporate and facilities expenses.

(3) Certain prior period amounts have been recast to conform with current period presentation.

​

18. Subsequent Events

​

In February 2026, the Company entered into the 2026 Loan Agreement with Blue Owl for up to $350.0 million, of which $100.0 million of the initial term loan (the “Initial Term Loan”) was received in February 2026. The Company used the proceeds of the Initial Term Loan upon the closing under the 2026 Loan Agreement to repay all outstanding obligations, totaling $103.7 million, under the Existing Loan Agreement with Oxford and upon such repayment, terminated the Existing Loan Agreement. The amount repaid by the Company included $100.0 million of outstanding indebtedness plus accrued and unpaid interest as of February 27, 2026 (the “Closing Date”) and fees. As a result of the termination, all credit commitments under the Existing Loan Agreement were terminated and all security interests and guarantees executed in connection with the Existing Loan Agreement were released.

​

An initial delayed draw term loan commitment in an aggregate principal amount not to exceed $100.0 million will be available after the Closing Date until the earliest of the full usage thereof, termination thereof and March 31, 2026 (the “DDTL-1 Commitments”, and any term loans made with respect thereto, the “DDTL-1 Term Loans”), which the Company may borrow at our sole option upon satisfying certain customary conditions, including satisfaction of the minimum cash covenant.

​

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